STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE.

TONGUE.

ENGLISH

Of all the parts of speech, VERBS are by far the

most complex and useful. From their importance we may juftly conclude, that they were coeval with the origin of language; though a long time must have been requifite to rear them up to that accuracy which they now poffefs.

The tenfes were contrived to mark the feveral distinctions of time. We commonly think of no more than its three great divifions, the past, the present, and the future; and we might fuppofe that, if verbs had been fo contrived as merely to exprefs thefe, no more was neceffary. But language proceeds with much greater fubtilty. It divides time into its feveral moments; it regards it as never ftanding still, but always flowing; things past, as more or less diftant; and things future, as more or less remote by different gradations. Hence the variety of tenfes in almost

every language.

The present may indeed be always regarded as one indivifible point, which admits no variety; "I am," "fum." But it is not fo with the past. Even the fum.” pooreft language has two or three tenses to express its varieties. Ours has four. 1. A past action may be represented as unfinished, by the imperfect tense; "I was walking, ambulabam.” 2. As finished by the perfect tense, "I have walked." 3. As finished some time fince, the particular time being left undetermin"I walked, ambulavi :" this is what gramma

ed;

rians call an aorift or indefinite paft. 4. As finished before fomething elfe, which is alfo paft. This is the plufquamperfect; "I had walked, ambulaveram. "I had walked before you called upon me." Our language, we must perceive with pleasure, has an advantage over the Latin, which has only three variations of past time.

The varieties in future time are two; a fimple or indefinite future; "I fhall walk, ambulabo;" and a future having reference to something else, which is likewife future; "I fhall have walked, ambulavero; "I fhall have walked, before he will pay me a visit.”

Befide tenfes, verbs admit the distinction of voices, viz. the active and paffive; as, "I love, or I am loved." They admit also the diftinction of modes, which are intended to exprefs the perceptions and volitions of the mind under different forms. The indicative mode fimply declares à propofition; "I write I have "written." The imperative requires, commands, or threatens ; "Write thou; let him write." The fubjunctive expreffes a propofition under the form of a condition, or as fubordinate to fomething to which reference is made; "I might write; I could write ; "I should write, if the matter were fo." This expreffion of the perceptions and volitions of the mind in fo many various forms, together with the diftinction of the three perfons, I, thou, and he, conftitutes the conjugation of verbs, which makes fo great a part of the Grammar of all languages.

Conjugation is reckoned moft perfect in those languages, which, by varying the termination, or the initial fyllable of the verb, expreffes the greatest number of important circumstances without the help of auxiliary

verbs. In the Oriental tongues verbs have few tenses; but their modes are fo contrived, as to express a great variety of circumstances and relations. In the Hebrew they fay in one word, without the aid of an auxiliary, not only, "I taught," but, "I was taught; I "caused to teach; I was caused to teach'; I taught "myself." The Greek, which is commonly thought to be the most perfect of all languages, is very regular and complete in the modes and tenfes. The Latin, though formed on the fame model, is not fo perfect; particularly in the paffive voice, which forms most of the tenfes by the aid of the auxiliary "fum." In modern European tongues, conjugation is very defective. The two great auxiliary verbs, to have and to be, with those other auxiliaries, which we use in English, do, fall, will, may, and can, prefixed to a participle, or to another verb in the infinitive mode, fupercede in a great measure the different terminations of modes and tenfes which formed the ancient conjugations.

The other parts of fpeech, as they admit no variation, will require only a fhort difcuffion.

Adverbs are for the most part an abridged mode of fpeech, expreffing by one word what might, by a circumlocution, be refolved into two or more words belonging to other parts of speech. "Here," for inftance, is the fame with "in this place." Hence adverbs feem to be lefs neceffary, and of later introduction into fpeech, than feveral other claffes of words; and accordingly most of them are derived from other words, formerly established in the language.

Prepofitions and conjunctions ferve to exprefs the relations which things bear to one another, their mutual influence, dependence, and coherence; and fo te

join words together, as to form intelligible propofitions. Conjunctions are commonly employed for connecting fentences, or members of sentences; as, and, because, and the like. Prepofitions are used for connecting words; as, of, from, to, &c. The beauty and strength of every language depend in a great measure on a proper use of conjunctions, prepofitions, and those relative pronouns, which ferve the fame purpose of connecting different parts of discourse.

Having thus briefly confidered the Structure of Language in general, we will now enter more particularly into an examination of our own Language.

The English, which was fpoken after the Norman Conqueft, and continues to be spoken now, is a mixture of the ancient Saxon and the Norman French, together with fuch new and foreign words, as commerce and learning have, in a fucceffion of ages, gradually introduced. From the influx of fo many streams, from a junction of fo many diffimilar parts, it naturally follows, that the English, like every compounded language, must be fomewhat irregular. We cannot expect from it that complete analogy in ftructure, which may be found in those fimpler languages, which were formed within themselves, and built on one foundation. Hence our fyntax is thort, fince there are few marks in the words themselves which fhow their relation to each other, or, point out either their concordance or their government in a sentence. But if thefe be difadvantages in a compound language, they are balanced by the advantages which attend it, particularly by the number and variety of words by which fuch a language is commonly enriched. Few languages are more copious than the English. In alt

grave fubjects especially, historical, critical, political, and moral, no complaint can justly be made of the barrenness of our tongue. We are rich too in the language of poetry; our poetical ftyle differs widely from profe, not with respect to numbers only, but in the very words themselves; which proves what a compass and variety of words we can felect and employ, fuited to different occafions. Herein we are infinitely fuperior to the French, whofe poetical language, if it were not distinguished by rhyme, would not be known to differ from their ordinary profe. Their language, however, furpaffes ours in expreffing whatever is delicate, gay, and amusing. It is, perhaps, the happieft language for converfation in the known world; but for the higher fubjects of compofition, the English is justly confidered as far fuperior to it.

The flexibility of a language, or its power of becoming either grave and strong, or eafy and flowing, or tender and gentle, or pompous and magnificent, as occafions require, is a quality of great importance in fpeaking and writing. This depends on the copioufness of a language; the different arrangements of which its words are fufceptible; and the variety and beauty of the founds of its words. The Greek poffeffed these requifites in a higher degree than any other language. It fuperadded the graceful variety of its different dialects; and thereby readily affumed every kind of character, an author could wish, from the most fimple and familiar, to the most majestick. The Latin, though very beautiful, is inferior in this refpect to the Greek. It has more of a fixed character of stateliness and gravity; and is fupported by a certain fenatorial dignity, of which it is difficult

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