But we may add that history should be understood not only as evinced in the court, the halls of legislation, and on the battle-field, but as shadowed forth by the people themselves in every-day life,—in the street, at home, their manner of living and mode of thought. As preliminary, a brief consideration of the development and growth of the intellect, the laws of its culture, and the order of studies to be pursued, will assist in deciding what position History should occupy in a system of education, and what faculties are exercised at each stage of the learner's progress.

Psychologically, the mind may be discussed under these divisions: The intellect, or knowing and reasoning faculties; the sensibility, or feeling; and the will, or the power of choice. Each has its place in the constitution of the mind, and requires its appropriate objects to induce proper activity. At first the child's mind is a blank; all his knowledge begins in experience, yet is not confined to experience. Let it be understood, however, that the infant, in a normal condition, possesses all the rudimentary powers or faculties of the mind, but these are not called into exercise before the appropriate conditions, both objectively and subjectively, are fulfilled. In the development of mind the faculties first exercised are the Presentative, next the Representative, and lastly the Reasoning faculties; but it does not follow that each group is developed singly. What is meant is, that in early life the Presentative are the most active; then, at a more advanced age, the Representative; and, lastly, Reason, being supplied with proper data, is in the ascendancy. Having established the order of intellectual development, the next question to be determined is, What kind of knowledge is required to give the necessary development?-or, more specifically, what kind of History is appropriate at any stage of the learner's progress?

The united experiences of educators in Europe and in America agree that, in early life, objective and material studies should chiefly occupy the attention of the child, and that a retentive memory should be sedulously cultivated. Imagination, too, must be properly guided; and since the acquisition and classification of knowledge necessitates thought, the logical faculties are furnished with material for reflection from daily experience. The study of History involves thought, and also the attendant of thought-language to communicate thought; hence the primary object of History is to teach the pupil to understand the life and doings of humanity, as enacted in ages past, and to prepare him for life and the duties of citizenship for the future. Intelligent citizenship is, therefore, the object of historical instruction in our common schools. This requirement is a demand of the

age and times in which we live There are duties the citizen owes to his country, to self, to humanity, and to God, and the performance of which requires the highest exercise of intelligence; consequently, the history of our country is one of the branches by common consent taught in all our schools. There is need that this should be so. For most unwillingly do we read of "put-up-jobs," bribery, rascality, and corruption in high places as well as low. As in the days of contaminated Rome, when ruled by the Pretorian Guards, men in some instances gain position by the aid of most ignoble means.

In some localities the services of the "repeating voter" and the "ballot-box tinkerer" are in active demand. And these are not all; there are men, acting under the sanctity of an oath, whose consciences are aided to duty through the potent influence of the weighty dollar. Were criminality found only among the low and ignorant, the remedy would lie in a general diffusion of knowledge; but it stalks into high places, and oftentimes assumes the air of innocence. Public morals may become debauched, a nation corroded at heart, the external life fair and imposing; but the internal, hollow and deceptive.

Turn to the Tenth Census Report, and contemplate for a moment the illiteracy of our country. Four millions of illiterate adults, and two millions of these are voters, nearly equally divided between the white and colored races,-twenty per cent. of the entire voting-population of our country! With this mass of ignorance, influenced largely by the lowest motives employed by wily politicians, it is not difficult to decide why the ballot-box is not pure and sacred in our national, state, and municipal elections. It is not assumed that all these men can be bought and sold, delivered, and voted, at the dictation of ward-bummers; but that many of them are, is a proposition too evident to admit of denial. Conscientious men do not act thus; for the man who acts in accordance with his convictions of right commands respect, and of such stuff heroes and martyrs are made.

The boy, by studying the history of his country, is made to feel that he has an interest in his native land; that its welfare is his, and that it is for him. Noble and patriotic sentiments are inspired in his young breast, and, as he becomes more familiar with the institutions. of his country, he learns to love and respect them. The love of country is inborn, although for a time it may appear to be utterly rooted out, yet it survives in spite of boasted threats and bitter denunciations. No difference whether he be an exiled Roman, sitting amid the desolation of a once proud and opulent city, or an American, who has imposed self-expatriation,― the love of country still exists.

"I have no country! the most terrible words ever uttered by man Gladly would Arnold and Burr have blotted out all love of country, but it would not.

To guide this love, to keep it pure and holy in the hearts of the young, is the duty of the teacher. This is not partisan politics,—it is pure patriotism.

II.

To give a satisfactory answer to "What should be taught?" is not to be expected; but it is confidently believed that such suggestions may be offered as will assist in throwing much light on this subject.

As a prerequisite the teacher ought to be familiar with the subject as presented in the text-books, and also with the history of contemporaneous nations. The history of the United States is closely connected with England, France, Holland, and Spain. The idea should be dismissed at once that "history" is "done up" in packages and labeled "Disconnected," to be taken in pure unadulterated dates. Not an atom in the universe is isolated, and much less are facts isolated in the progress of civilization. Universal laws govern the birth and death of nations with as much certainty as that of individuals. Isolation is nowhere found in the realms of mind or matter.

Among the more important topics embraced in the history of the United States is the appended list, designed to serve as a guide in amplifying the course to be followed by the teacher. History has its epochs, and those are strongly marked in the development of our country. The first remarkable epoch is that of the "Mound Builders" prior to 1492; the next remarkable epoch is that of Discoveries and Explorations. The discoveries made by Spain, England, France, and Holland, from 1492 to 1607, should be sharply defined, and the claims of each thoroughly understood. The relations of these countries to one another require special attention, and the motives by which they were actuated must not be omitted. Unless contemporaneous history be well understood and explained by the teacher, the history of this country appears only as accidental happenings, without order or system. Time, place, and the causes of events, these elements united in thought, make the distinctive. characteristics of history in the concrete.

Growing out of the Discoveries and Explorations is the Period of Settlements, which dates from 1607 to 1732. This is, in some respects, a more interesting period to the student of American history than the preceding. In teaching, the points to be kept prominently in view are: Why did the settlers come to this place or go to

that one? What political, social, religious, and educational opinions did they represent? What were their habits of thought, manner of living, and mode of dress? Did they come to this country with all the passions and prejudices of the old world, or had oppression driven them from country and from home? By what authority did each colony acquire a title to the land? How was it obtained by the settlers? With whom was the law-making power vested, and how were the laws enforced? What influences caused the colonists to unite their military forces in times of danger? What treatment did the colonists receive from the Royal Governors? How were the colonists effected by the wars between England, France, and Spain? In what respects did these wars prepare the colonies for the revolutionary struggle? The next remarkable epoch is the Revolution and its immediate causes, which may be considered as extending from 1763 to 1789. The causes of this war should receive special attention, and candor compels the teacher to make an impartial statement of all the facts touching this subject.

Under the division, Why the war? may be enumerated,—that the colonists wished to be treated as Englishmen, professing loyalty to the British crown; the occupation of Boston by British soldiers, and their insolence to the citizens; the rejection of the petitions sent to the ministry and to Parliament; and, finally, the appeal to arms. Battles that followed are to be studied as effects, not causes. The assembling of the Continental Congress, and the provisions enacted to organize, equip, and support the army; the Declaration of Independence, its influence at home and abroad; the campaigns and the strategic positions occupied by the opposing forces, the battles and their results; treaties with foreign nations, and the benefits derived therefrom; how the armies were maintained in the field; the trials and privations of armies, and also of the citizens; the depreciation of the currency and the destruction of commerce; all these should be thoroughly studied and well understood. It is necessary, also, to mention the condition of the colonies at the close of the war and until the adoption of the Federal Constitution, as one of the most interesting and critical periods of our national history.

In taking up the Political History, the following important topics are suggested, to wit: the adoption of the Constitution, and the noted events of each administration, including the growth of States and the acquisition of territory; the rise and progress of political parties and the ideas represented by them; discoveries in science and the arts, and their applications for the amelioration of society, and especially the application of steam as a motor force; improvements

in mechanical and agricultural implements, and the manufacture of textile and other fabrics; rapid advancement in modes of travel,also postal and telegraphic communication; the wonderful progress of the common-school system and higher academic-instruction, and the general diffusion of knowledge as exhibited in the multiplication of books and the universality of newspapers and periodicals.

The late war was an educator. The Constitution was studied by all classes as it had never been before. As the armies advanced or retreated, the lines of march were scanned by millions of eyes. The war was the efficient cause in popularizing "civil government" in the common schools. Educators saw the need, and it was speedily supplied with popular and attractive text-books; and what was once considered as belonging exclusively to the statesman or jurist became, in a single decade, a branch of study along with Geography and History.

The fundamental law of the land should be as familiar to the teacher as the subjects of Percentage and Proportion. The three coordinate branches of government, — Legislative, Executive, and Judicial, the triune in unity,—are independent of each other, and yet dependent. To preserve this equilibrium is the imperative duty of the people, and it can only be preserved and transmitted by adhering strictly to the Constitution.

Everything exists in obedience to law, and even all in authority must be governed by the law, and, if needs be, condemned by the law. Were I asked to mention the most important topic for the benefit of the pupil in studying the History of the United States, my answer would be, "Obedience to the Constitution and the Laws of the Country."

A late work on General History contains the following excellent questions, which may be multiplied or abridged to suit any class of pupils:

I. Who were the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Hebrews, Latins, Spaniards, English, etc.? What did each of those nations contribute to the common stock of civilization?

2. In what forms did the mind of the race express itself, in religion, war, law-making, political organization, literature, and art? 3. What was the actual life of the people themselves?

These queries are suggestive, and indicate, partly, the course to be pursued by the instructor. Capital points are to be mapped out, and the outlines drawn with a bold and steady hand. Before dismissing this division of the subject, it is deemed advisable to present such a classification of historical reading as the advancement of the pupils demands.