to be taught to youth into three classes: (a) Mechanical virtues in which the youth exercises a minimum of moral choice and obeys an external rule prescribed for him. In this, the lowest species of moral discipline, the youth learns self-denial and self-control, and not much besides. (b) Social duties,-those which govern the relation of man to man, and which are the properly called "moral" duties. In this form of moral discipline the youth learns to obey principle rather than the immediate will of another, or a mechanical prescription. (c) Religious duties, or those based on the relation to God as revealed in religion. In these the youth learns the ultimate grounds of obligation, and gains both a practical principle for the conduct of life and a theoretic principle on which to base his view of the world. In his religious doctrine man formulates his theory of the origin and destiny of nature and the human race, and at the same time defines his eternal vocation, his fundamental duties. The mere statement of this obvious fact is sufficient to indicate the rank and importance of the religious part of the moral duties.

5. In the school your committee note, first, the moral effect of the requirement of implicit obedience, a requirement necessary within the school for its successful administration. The discipline in obedience, in its strict form, such as is found in the school-room, has four other applications which remain valid under all conditions of society :

(a) Obedience toward parents; (b) toward employers, overseers, and supervisors as regards the details of work; (c) toward the government in its legally constituted authority, civil or military; (d) towards the Divine Will, howsoever revealed. In each of these four forms there is, and always remains, a sphere of greater or less extent within which implicit obedience is one's duty. In the three first-named, this duty is not absolute but limited, the sphere continually growing narrower with the growth of the individual in wisdom and self-directive power. In the fourth form of obedience the individual comes more and more to a personal insight into the necessity of the divine law as revealed in Scripture, in nature, and especially in human life, and he becomes through this emancipated relatively from the direct personal control of men, even of the wisest and best, and becomes rather a law unto himself. He outgrows mere mechanical obedience, and arrives at a truly moral will in which the law is written on the heart.

6. The pillars on which school education rests are behavior and scholarship. Deportment or behavior comes first as the sine qua non. The first requisite of the school is order: each pupil must be taught to conform his behavior to the general standard and repress all that interferes with the function of the school. In the outset, therefore, a

whole family of virtues are taught the pupil, and taught him so thoroughly that they become fixed in his character. In the mechanical duties, habit is everything, and theory is little or nothing. The pupil is taught:

(a) Punctuality; he must be at school in time. Sleep, business, play, indisposition, all must give way to the duty of obedience to this external requirement to observe the particular moment of time and conform to it. Punctuality does not end with getting to school, but, while in school, it is of equal importance. Combination cannot be achieved without it. The pupil must have his lesson ready at the appointed time, must rise from his seat at the tap of the bell, move to line, return in short he must go through all the evolutions with observance of rhythm.

(b) Regularity is the next discipline. Regularity is punctuality reduced to a system. Conformity to the requirements of time in a particular instance is punctuality; made general, it become regularity. Combination in school rests on these two virtues. They are the most elementary of the moral code,-its alphabet, in short.

This age is often called the age of productive industry,—the era of emancipation of man from the drudgery of slavery to his natural wants of food, clothing, and shelter. This emancipation is effected by machinery. Machinery has quadrupled the efficiency of human industry within the past half-century. There is one general training especially needed to prepare the generations of men who are to act as directors of machinery and managers of the business that depends upon it; this training is in the habits of punctuality and regularity. Only by obedience to these abstract external laws of time and place may we achieve a social combination complete enough to free us from thraldom to our physical wants and necessities.

(c) Silence is the third of these semi-mechanical duties. It is the basis for the culture of internality or reflection,-the soil in which thought grows. The pupil is therefore taught habits of silence,-to restrain his natural animal impulse to prate and chatter. All ascent above his animal nature arises through this ability to hold back the mind from utterance of the immediate impulse. The first impression. must be corrected by the second. Combination and generalization are required to reach deep and wide truths, and these depend upon this habit of silence.

Thus silence in the school-room has a twofold significance: first, it is necessary in order that there may be no distraction of the attention of others from their work; secondly, it is a direct discipline in the art of combining the diffused and feeble efforts of the pupil himself.

These mechanical duties constitute an elementary training in mor als without which it is exceedingly difficult to build any superstructure of moral character whatever. Moral education, therefore, must begin in merely mechanical obedience and develop gradually out of this stage towards individual responsibility.

7. The strictly moral duties fall into two classes,—those that relate to the individual himself and those that relate to his fellows :

(a) Duties to self. These are,-(1) physical, and concern cleanliness, neatness in person and clothing, total abstinence in some cases, and temperance and moderation in other cases of gratification of the animal appetites and passions.

The school can and does teach cleanliness and neatness, but it has less power over the pupil in regard to temperance. It can teach him self-control and self-sacrifice in the three disciplines already named,— punctuality, regularity, and silence,—and in so doing it may free him from thraldom to the body in other respects. It can and does labor efficiently against obscenity and profanity in language, and thereby impresses on the pupil the moral standard of purity.

(2) Self-culture. This duty belongs especially to the school All of its lessons contribute to the pupil's self-culture. By its discipline it gives him control over himself and ability to combine with his fellow-men; by its instruction it gives him knowledge of the world of nature and man. This virtue corresponds nearly to the one named Prudence in ancient ethical systems. The Christian theology discusses four cardinal virtues,-Temperance, Prudence, Fortitude, and Justice. Prudence places the individual above and beyond his present moment, as it were, letting him stand over himself watching and directing himself. Man is a twofold being, having a particular special self, and a general nature, his ideal self, the possibility of perfection. Prudence stands for the theoretical or intellectual side of the cardinal or secular virtues.

(3) Industry. This virtue means devotion to one's calling or business. Each one owes it to himself to have some business and to be industrious.

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The good school does nor tolerate idleness. efficient means of securing industry from its pupils. definite task scrupulously adjusted to his capacity, and he will be held responsible for its performance. Is there any better training yet devised to educate youth into industry and its concomitants of sincerity, earnestness, perseverance, simplicity, patience, faithfulness, and reliability, than the school method of requiring work in definite amounts at definite times and of an approved quality? The pupil has

provided for him a business or vocation. By industry and self-sacrifice he is initiated into a third of the cardinal virtues,-fortitude.

8. (b) Duties to others. Duties to self rest on the consciousness of a higher nature in the individual and of the duty of bringing out and realizing this higher nature. Duties to others recognize this higher ideal nature as something general, and hence as also the true inward self of our fellow-men.

This ideal of man we are conscious that we realize only very imperfectly, and yet it is the fact that we have the possibility of it in ourselves that gives us our value above animals and plants. In our fellow-men we see revelations of this ideal nature that we have not yet realized ourselves. Each one possesses some special gift or quality that helps us know ourselves. The experience of each fellow-man is a contribution toward our own self-knowledge, and vicariously aids us without our being obliged to pay for it in the pain and suffering that the original experience cost. Inasmuch as our ideal can be realized only through this aid from our fellow-men, the virtues that enable us to combine with others and form institutions precede in importance the mechanical virtues.

There are three classes of duties toward others: (1) Courtesy,— including all forms of politeness, good-breeding, urbanity, decorum, modesty, respect for public opinion, liberality, magnanimity, etc., described under various names by Aristotle and by others after him. The essence of this virtue consists in the resolution to see in others only the ideal of humanity, and to ignore any and all defects that may exist in their behavior.

Courtesy in many of its forms is readily taught in school. Its teaching is often marred by the manner of the teacher, which may be sour and surly, or petulant and fault-finding. The importance of this. virtue both to its possessor and to all his fellows demands a more careful attention on the part of school-managers to secure its presence in the school-room."

(2) Justice. This is recognized as the chief in the family of secular virtues. It has several forms or species, as, for example, (a) honesty, the fair dealing with others respecting their rights of person, property, and reputation; (b) truth-telling or honesty in speech,-honesty itself being truth-acting. Such names as integrity, uprightness, righteousness, express further distinctions that belong to this staunch virtue.

Justice, like courtesy in the fact that it looks upon the ideal of the individual, is unlike courtesy in that it looks upon the deed of the individual in a very strict and business-like way, and measures its

defects by the high standard. According to the principle of justice, each one receives in proportion to his deeds, and not in proportion to his possibilities, wishes, or unrealized aspirations. All individuals are ideally equal in the essence of their humanity; but justice will return upon each the equivalent of his deed only. If it be a crime, Justice returns it upon the doer as a limitation of his personal freedom or his property.

The school is more effective in teaching the forms of justice than in teaching those of courtesy. Truth-telling especially receives the full emphasis of all the power of school-discipline. Every lesson is an exercise in digging out and closely defining the truth,-in extending the realm of clearness and certainty further, and in limiting the region of ignorance and guess-work. How careful the pupil is compelled to be with his statements in the recitation and with his previous preparation!

While Justice may discover the exact performance of each pupil and give him recognition for it, on the other hand injustice may easily arise if there is carelessness on the part of the teacher. Such carelessness may suffer the weeds of lying and deceit to grow up, and when the dishonest pupil can gather the fruits of honesty and truth, a premium is offered for fraud. The school may thus furnish an immoral education, notwithstanding its great opportunities to inculcate the noble virtue of honesty.

The private individual must not be permitted to return the evil deed upon the doer, for that would be revenge and hence a new crime. All personality and self-interest must be sifted out before justice can be done to the criminal. Hence we count as a kindred virtue to Justice that of obedience to law.

(3) Respect for law, as the only means of protecting the innocent and punishing the guilty, is the complement of justice. It looks upon the ideal as realized not in an individual man, but in an institution represented in the form of an executive officer who is supported with legislative and judicial powers.

The school, when governed by an arbitrary and tyrannical teacher, is a fearfully demoralizing influence in a community. The law-abiding virtue is weakened, and a whole troop of lesser virtues take their flight and give admittance to passions and appetites. But the teacher may teach respect for law, very thoroughly, on the other hand. In this matter a great change has been wrought in the methods of discipline in later years. Corporal punishment has been very largely disused. It is clear that with frequent and severe corporal punishment it is next to impossible to retain genuine respect for law. Only