them up and cut off the roots, beginning at one end of a row. From October to March the seeds should be sown thickly in shallow boxes and placed in a warm house or frame, with a temperature not below 65°.

Brassica nigra occurs as a weed in waste and cultivated ground throughout England and the south of Scotland, but is a doubtful native. It is a large branching annual 2 to 3 ft. high with stiff, rather rough, stem and branches, dark green leaves ranging from lyrate below to lanceolate above, short racemes of small bright yellow flowers one-third of an inch in diameter and narrow smooth pods. B. alba is more restricted to cultivated ground and has still less claim to be considered a native of Great Britain; it is distinguished from black mustard by its smaller size, larger flowers and seeds, and spreading rough hairy pods with a long

curved beak.

The peculiar pungency and odour to which mustard owes much of its value are due to an essential oil developed by the action of water on two peculiar chemical substances contained in the black seed. These bodies are a glucoside termed by its discoverers myronate of potassium, but since called sinigrin, CHKNS,010, and an albuminoid body, myrosin. The latter substance in presence of water acts as a ferment on sinigrin, splitting it up into the essential oil of mustard, a potassium salt, and sugar. It is worthy of remark that this reaction does not take place in presence of boiling water, and therefore it is not proper to use very hot water (above 120° F.) in the preparation of mustard. The explanation is that myrosin is decomposed by water above this temperature. Essential oil of mustard is in chemical constitution an isothiocyanate of allyl CH,NCS. It is prepared artificially by a process, discovered by Zinzin, which consists in treating bromide of allyl with thiocyanate of ammonium and distilling the resultant thiocyanate of allyl. The seed of white mustard contains in place of sinigrin a peculiar glucoside called sinalbin, CHAN2SO, in several aspects analogous to sinigrin. In presence of water it is acted upon by myrosin, present also in white mustard, splitting it up into acrinyl isothiocyanate, sulphate of sinapin and glucose. The first of these is a powerful rubefacient, whence white mustard, although yielding no volatile oil, forms a valuable material for plasters. The seeds of Brassica juncea have the same constitution and properties as black mustard, as a substitute for which they are extensively cultivated in southern Russia; the plant is also cultivated abundantly in India. Both as a table condiment and as a medicinal substance, mustard has been known from a very remote period. Under the name of vary it was used by Hippocrates in medicine. The form in which table mustard is now sold in the United Kingdom dates from 1720, about which time Mrs Clements of Durham hit on the idea of grinding the seed in a mill and sifting the flour from the husk. The bright yellow farina thereby produced under the name of "Durham mustard" pleased the taste of George I., and rapidly attained wide popularity. As it is now prepared mustard consists essentially of a mixture of black and white farina in certain proportions. Several grades of pure mustard are made containing nothing but the farina of mustard-seed, the lower qualities having larger amounts of the white cheaper mustard; and corresponding grades of a mixed preparation of equal price, but containing certain proportions of wheaten or starch flour, are also prepared and sold as "mustard condiment." The mixture is free from the unmitigated bitterness and sharpness of flavour of pure mustard, and it keeps much better. The volatile oil distilled from black mustard seeds after maceration with water is official in the British Pharmacopeia under the title Oleum sinapis volatile. It is a yellowish or colourless pungent liquid, soluble only in about fifty parts of water, but readily so in ether and in alcohol. From it is prepared, with camphor, castor oil and alcohol, the linimentum sinapis. The official sinapis consists of black and white mustard seeds powdered and mixed. The advantage of mixture depends upon the fact that the white mustard seeds have an excess of the ferment myrosin, and the black, whilst somewhat deficient in myrosin, yield a volatile body as compared with the fixed product of the white mustard seeds. From this mixture is prepared the charta sinapis, which consists of cartridge paper covered with a mixture of the powder and the liquor caoutchouc, the fixed oil having first been removed by benzol, thus rendering the glucoside capable of being more easily decomposed by the ferment. Used internally as a condiment, mustard stimulates the salivary but not the gastric secretions. It increases the peristaltic movements of the stomach very markedly. One drachm to half an ounce of mustard in a tumblerful of warm water is an efficient emetic, acting directly upon the gastric sensory nerves, long before any of the drug could be absorbed so as to reach the emetic centre in the medulla oblongata. The heart and respiration are reflexly stimulated, mustard being thus the only stimulant emetic. Some few other emetics act without any appreciable depression, but in cases of poisoning with respiratory or cardiac failure mustard should never be forgotten. In contrast to this may be mentioned, amongst the external therapeutic applications of mustard, its frequent power of relieving vomiting when locally applied to the epigastrium.

The uses of mustard leaves in the treatment of local pains are well known. When a marked counter-irritant action is needed, mustard is often preferable to cantharides in being more manageable and in causing a less degree of vesication; but the cutaneous damage done by mustard usually takes longer to heal. A mustard sitz bath will often hasten and alleviate the initial stage of menstruation, and is sometimes used to expedite the appearance of the eruption in measles and scarlatina. The domestic remedy of hot water and mustard for children's feet in cases of cold or threatened cold may be of some use in drawing the blood to the surface and thus tending to prevent an excessive vascular dilatation in the nose or bronchi. The proportion of an ounce of mustard to a gallon of water is a fair one and casily remembered. But by far the most important therapeutic application of mustard is as a unique emetic.

MUSTARD OILS, organic chemical compounds of general formula R-NCS. They may be prepared by the action of carbon bisulphide on primary amines in alcoholic or ethercal solution, the alkyl dithio-carbamic compounds formed being then precipitated with mercuric chloride, and the mercuric salts heated in aqueous solution,

2R-NH, CSCS HR HRHNCS,];Hg→HgS+H;S+2RNCS; -> SNH,R or the isocyanic esters may be heated with phosphorus pentasulphide (A. Michael and G. Palmer, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1884, 6, 257). They are colourless liquids with a very pungent irritating odour. They are readily oxidized, with production of the corresponding amine. Nascent hydrogen onverts them into the amine, with simultaneous formation of thio-formaldehyde, RNCS+4H=R.NH2+HCSH. When heated with acids to 100° C, they decompose with formation of the amine and liberation of carbon bisulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen. They combine directly with alcohols, mercaptans, ammonia, amines and with aldehyde ammonia.

Methyl mustard oil, CH,NCS, melts at 35° C. and boils at 119° C. Allyl mustard oil, CHNCS, is the principal constituent of the ordinary mustard oil obtained on distilling black mustard seeds. These seeds contain potassium myronate (C10H13NSO10K) which in presence of water is hydrolysed by the myrosin present in the seed, C10H1NS2OK=CH12O2+KHSO,+C2H2NCS. It may also be prepared by heating allyl sulphide with potassium sulphocyanide. It is a colourless liquid boiling at 150.7° C. It combines directly with potassium bisulphite. Phenyl mustard oil, CH,NCS, is obtained by boiling sulphocarbanilide with concentrated hydrochloric acid, some triphenylguanidine being formed at the same time. It is a colourless liquid boiling at 222° C. When heated with copper powder it yields benzonitrile.

MUSTER (Mid. Eng. mostre, moustre, adapted from the similar O. Fr. forms; Lat. monstrare), originally an exhibition, show, review, an exhibition of strength, prowess or power. One of the meanings of this common Romanic word, viz. pattern, sample, is only used in commercial usage in English (e.g. in the cutlery trade), but it has passed into Teutonic languages, Ger. Muster, Du. mouster. The most general meaning is for the assembling of soldiers and sailors for inspection and review, and more particularly for the ascertainment and verification of the numbers on the roll. This use is seen in the Med. Lat. monstrum and monstratio, "recensio militum" (Du Cange, Gloss. s.v.). In the "enlistment" system of army organization during the 16th and 17th centuries, and later in certain special survivals, each regiment was "enlisted" by its colonel and reviewed by special officers," muster-masters," who vouched for the members on the pay roll of the regiment representing its actual strength. This was a necessary precaution in the days when it was in the power of the commander of a unit to fill the muster roll with the names of fictitious men, known in the military slang of France and England as passe-volants and "faggots" respectively. The chief officer at headquarters was the muster-master-general, later commissary general of musters. In the United States the term is still commonly used, and a soldier is "mustered out" when he is officially discharged from military service.

MUSURUS, MARCUS (c. 1470-1517), Greek scholar, was born at Rhithymna (Retimo) in Crete. At an early age he became a pupil of John Lascaris at Venice. In 1505 he was made professor of Greek at Padua, but when the university was closed in 1509 during the war of the league of Cambrai he

MUTE (Lat. mutus, dumb), silent or incapable of speech. For the human physical incapacity see DEAF AND DUMB. In phonetics (q.v.) a "mute" letter is one which (like p or g) represents no individual sound. The name of "mutes" is given, for obvious reasons, to the undertaker's assistants at a funeral. In music a "mute" (Ital. sordino, from Lat. surdus, deaf) is a device for deadening the sound in an instrument by checking its vibrations. Its use is marked by the sign c.s. (con sordino), and its cessation by s.s. (senza sordino). In the case of the violin and other stringed instruments this object is attained by the use of a piece of brass, wood or ivory, so shaped as to fit on the bridge without touching the strings and hold it so tightly as to deaden or muffle the vibrations. In the case of brass wind instruments a leather, wooden or papier mâché pad in the shape of a pear with a hole through it is placed in the bell of the instrument, by which the passage of the sound is impeded. The interference with the pitch of the instruments has led to the invention of elaborately constructed mutes. Players on the horn and trumpet frequently use the left hand as a mute. Drums are muted or "muffled" either by the pressure of the hand on the head, or by covering with cloth. In the side drum this is effected by the insertion of pieces of cloth between the membrane and the "snares," or by loosening the "snares." The muting of a pianoforte is obtained by the use of the soft-pedal.

MUTIAN, KONRAD (1471-1526), German humanist, was born in Homberg on the 15th of October 1471 of well-to-do parents named Mut, and was subsequently known as Konrad Mutianus Rufus, from his. red hair. At Deventer under Alexander Hegius he had Erasmus as schoolfellow; proceeding(1486) to the university of Erfurt, he took the master's degree in 1492. From 1495 he travelled in Italy, taking the doctor's degree in canon law at Bologna. Returning in 1502, the landgraf of Hesse promoted him to high office. The post was not congenial; he resigned it (1503) for a small salary as canonicus in Gotha. Mutian was a man of great influence in a select circle especially connected with the university of Erfurt, and known as the Mutianischer Bund, which included Eoban Hess, Crotus Rubeanus, Justus Jonas and other leaders of independent thought. He had no public ambition; except in correspondence, and as an epigrammatist, he was no writer, but he furnished ideas to those who wrote. He may deserve the title which has been given him as "precursor of the Reformation," in so far as he desired the reform of the Church, but not the establishment of a rival. Like Erasmus, he was with Luther in his early stage, but deserted him in his later development. Though he had personally no hand in it, the Epistolae obscurorum virorum (due especially to Crotus Rubeanus) was the outcome of the Reuchlinists in his Bund. He died at Gotha on the 30th of March (Good Friday) 1526.

See F. W. Kampschulte, Die Universität Erfurt (1858-1860); C. Krause, Eobanus Hessus (1879); L. Geiger, in Allgemeine Deutsche Biog. (1886); C. Krause, Der Briefwechsel des Mutianus Rufus (1885); another collection by K. Gillert (1890). (A. Go.*)

MUTILATION (from Lat. mutilus, maimed). The wounding, maiming and disfiguring of the body is a practice common among savages and systematically pursued by many entire races. The varieties of mutilation are as numerous as the instances of it are widespread. Nearly every part of the body is the object of mutilation, and nearly every motive common to human

tion of his totem on his body; and many mutilations are tribe marks, or brands used to know slaves.

Mutilations may be divided into: (1) those of the skin; (2) of the face and head; (3) of the body and limbs; (4) of the teeth; (5) of the sexual organs. 1. The principal form of skin-mutilation is tattooing (q.v.), the ethnical importance of which is very great. A practice almost as common is depilation, or removal of hair. This is either by means of the razor, e.g. in Japan, by depilatories, or by tearing out the hairs eparately, as among most savage peoples. The parts thus mutilated Many African natives tear out all the body hair, some among them are usually the eyebrows, the face, the scalp and the pubic regions. (e.g. the Bongos) using special pincers. Depilation is common, too, in the South Sea Islands. The Andaman islanders and the Botocudos of Brazil shave the body, using shell-edges and other primitive instruments. 2. Mutilations of the face and head are usually restricted to the lips, ears, nose and cheeks. The lips are simply perforated or distended to an extraordinary degree. The Botocudos insert disks of wood into the lower lip. Lip-mutilations are common in North America, too, on the Mackenzie river and among the Aleutians. In Africa they are frequently practised. The Manganja women pierce the upper lips and introduce small metal shields or rings. The Mittu women bore the lower lip and thrust a wooden peg through. In other tribes little sticks of rock crystal are pushed through, increase the natural thickness of the upper lip by pricking it repeatwhich jingle together as the wearer talks. The women of Senegal edly until it is permanently inflamed and swollen. The ear, and particularly the lobe, is almost universally mutilated, from the earrings of the civilized West to the wooden disks of the Botocudos. The only peoples who are said not to wear any form of ear ornament are the Andaman islanders, the Neddahs, the Bushmen, the Fuegians and certain tribes of Sumatra. Ear mutilation in its most exag gerated form is practised in Indo-China by the Mois of Annam and the Penangs of Cambodia, and in Borneo by the Dyaks. They extend the lobe by the insertion of wooden disks, and by metal rings and weights, until it sometimes reaches the shoulder. In Africa and Asia earrings sometimes weigh nearly half a pound. Livingstone said that the natives of the Zambesi distend the perforation in the lobe to such a degree that the hand closed could be the body of the ear rolls of leaves, or of leather, or cigarettes. The passed through. The Monbuttus thrust through a perforation in Papuans, the inhabitants of the New Hebrides, and most Melanesian peoples carry all sorts of things in their ears, the New Caledonians using them as pipe-racks. Many races disfigure the nose with perforations. The young dandies of New Guinea bore holes through the septum and thrust through pieces of bone or flowers, a mutilation found, too, among New Zealanders, Australians, New Caledonians and other Polynesian races. In Africa the Bagas and Bongos hang metal rings and buckles on their noses; the Aleutians cords, bits usually perforated; rings and jewelled pendants (as among Indian In women it is the side of the nose which is and Arabic women, the ancient Egyptians and Jews), or feathers, flowers, coral, &c. (as in Polynesia), being hung there. Only one side of the nose is usually perforated, and this is not always merely in Africa, whose unmarried girls wear no rings in their noses. The decorative. It may denote social position, as among the Ababdes male Kulus of the Himalaya wear a large ring in the left nostril. Malays and Polynesians sometimes deform the nose by enlarging its base, effecting this by compression of the nasal bones of the newly born.

of metal or amber.

In some

The cheeks are not so frequently mutilated. The people of the Aleutian and Kurile Islands bore holes through their cheeks and place in them the long hairs from the muzzles of seals. The Guaranis of South America wear feathers in the same manner. countries the top of the head or the skin behind the ears of children is burnt to preserve them from sickness, traces of which mutilation are said to be discoverable on some neolithic skulls; while some African tribes cut and prick the neck close to the ear. By many peoples the deformation of the skull was anciently practised. Herodotus, Hippocrates and Strabo mention such a custom among peoples of the Caspian and Crimea. Later similar practices were found existing among Chinese mendicant sects, some tribes of Turkestan, the Japanese priesthood, in Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and

See F. S. Growse, Mathura (Allahabad, 1883).

MUTULE (Lat. mutulus, a stay or bracket), in architecture the rectangular block under the soffit of the cornice of the Greek | Doric temple, which is studded with gullae. It is supposed to represent the piece of timber through which the wooden pegs were driven in order to hold the rafter in position, and it follows the rake of the roof. In the Roman Doric order the mutule was horizontal, with sometimes a crowning fillet, so that it virtually fulfilled the purpose of the modillion in the Corinthian cornice.

MUZAFFAR-ED-DIN, shah of Persia (1853-1907), the second son of Shah Nasr-ed-Din, was born on the 25th of March 1853. He was in due course declared vali ahd, or heir-apparent, and invested with the governorship of Azerbaijan, but on the assassination of his father in 1896 it was feared that his elder brother, Zill-es-Sultan, the governor of Isfahan, might prove a dangerous rival, especially when it was remembered that Muzaffar-ed-Din had been recalled to Teheran by his father upon his failure to suppress a Kurd rising in his province. The British and Russian governments, in order to avoid widespread disturbances, agreed however to give him their support. All opposition was thus obviated, and Muzaffar-ed-Din was duly enthroned on the 8th of June 1896, the Russian general Kosakowsky, commander of the Persian Cossacks, presiding over the ceremony with drawn sword. On this occasion the new shah announced the suppression of all purchase of civil and military posts, and then proceeded to remit in perpetuity all taxes on bread and meat, thus lightening the taxation on food, which had caused the only disturbances in the last reign. But whatever hopes may have been aroused by this auspicious beginning of the reign were soon dashed owing to the extravagance and profligacy of the court, which kept the treasury in a chronic state of depletion. Towards the end of 1896 the Amin-es-Sultan, who had been grand vizier during the last years of Nasr-ed-Din's reign, was disgraced, and Muzaffar-edDin announced his intention of being in future his own grand vizier. The Amin-ad-Dowla, a less masterful servant, took office with the lower title of prime minister. During his short administration an elaborate scheme of reforms was drawn up on paper, and remained on paper. The treasury continued empty, and in the spring of 1898 Amin-es-Sultan was recalled with the special object of filling it. The delay of the British government in sanctioning a loan in London gave Russia her opportunity. A Russian loan was followed by the establishment of a Russian bank at Teheran, and the vast expansion of Russian influence generally. At the beginning of 1900 a fresh gold loan was negotiated with Russia, and a few months later Muzaffar-ed-Din started on a tour in Europe by way of St Petersburg, where he was received with great state. He subsequently went to Paris to visit the Exhibition of 1900, and while there an attempt on his life was made by a madman named François Salson. In spite of this experience the shah so enjoyed his European tour that he determined to repeat it as soon as possible. By the end of 1901 his treasury was again empty; but a fresh Russian loan replenished it and in 1902 he again came to Europe, paying on this occasion a state visit to England. On his way back

honour by the tsar toasts were exchanged of unmistakable significance. None the less, during his visit to King Edward VII. the shah had been profuse in his expressions of friendship for Great Britain, and in the spring of 1903 a special mission was sent to Teheran to invest him with the Order of the Garter. The shah's misguided policy had created widespread disaffection in the country, and the brunt of popular disfavour fell on the atabeg (the title by which the Amin-es-Sultan was now known), who was once more disgraced in September 1903. The war with Japan now relaxed the Russian pressure on Teheran, and at the same time dried up the source of supplies; and the clergy, giving voice to the general misery and discontent, grew more and more outspoken in their denunciations of the shah's misrule. Nevertheless Muzaffar-ed-Din defied public opinion by making another journey to Europe in 1905; but, though received with the customary distinction at St Petersburg, he failed to obtain further supplies. In the summer of 1906 popular discontent culminated in extraordinary demonstrations at Teheran, which practically amounted to a general strike. The shah was forced to yield, and proclaimed a liberal constitution, the first parliament being opened by him on the 12th of October 1906. Muzaffar-ed-Din died on the 8th of January 1907, being succeeded by his son Mahommed Ali Mirza.

MUZAFFARGARH, a town and district of British India, in the Multan division of the Punjab. The town is near the right bank of the river Chenab, and has a railway station. Pop. (1901), 4018. Its fort and a mosque were built by Nawab Muzaffar Khan in 1794-1796.

The DISTRICT OF MUZAFFARGARH occupies the lower end of the Sind-Sagar Doab. Area, 3635 sq. m. In the northern half of the district is the wild thal or central desert, an arid elevated tract with a width of 40 m. in the extreme north, which gradually contracts until it disappears about ro m. south of Muzaffargarh town. Although apparently a table-land, it is really composed of separate sandhills, with intermediate valleys lying at a lower level than that of the Indus, and at times flooded. The towns stand on high sites or are protected by embankments; but the villages scattered over the lowlands are exposed to annual inundations, during which the people abandon their grass-built huts, and take refuge on wooden platforms attached to each house. Throughout the cold weather large herds of camels, belonging chiefly to the Povindah merchants of Afghanistan, graze upon the sandy waste.

The district possesses hardly any distinct annals of its own, having always formed part of Multan (q.v.). The population in 1901 was 405,656, showing an increase of 6·4% in the decade, due to the extension of irrigation. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, rice and indigo. The most important domestic animal is the camel. The district is crossed by the NorthWestern railway, and the boundary rivers are navigable, besides furnishing numerous irrigation channels, originally constructed under native rule.

MUZAFFARNAGAR, a town and district of British India, in the Meerut division of the United Provinces. The town is 790 ft. above the sea, and has a station on the North-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 23.444. It is an important trading centre and has a manufacture of blankets. It was founded about 1633 by the son of Muzaffar Khan, Khan-i-Jahan, one of the famous Sayid family who rose to power under the emperor Shah Jahan.

The DISTRICT OF MUZAFFARNAGAR has an area of 1666 sq. m. It lies near the northern extremity of the Doab or great alluvial plain between the Ganges and the Jumna, and shares to a large extent in the general monotony of that level region. A great portion is sandy and unfertile; but under irrigation the soil is rapidly improving, and in many places the villagers have succeeded in introducing a high state of cultivation. Before the opening of the canals Muzaffarnagar was liable to famines caused by drought; but the danger from this has been minimized by the spread of irrigation. It is traversed by four main canals, the Ganges, Anupshahr, Deoband and Eastern Jumna. Its trade is confined to the raw materials it produces. The