MUNKACSY, MICHAEL VON (1844-1900), Hungarian painter, whose real name was MICHAEL (MISKA) LEO LIEB, was the third son of Michael Lieb, a collector of salt-tax in Munkács, Hungary, and of Cäcilia Röck. He was born in that town on the 20th of February 1844. In 1848 his father was arrested at Miskolcz for complicity in the Hungarian revolution, and died shortly after his release; a little earlier he had also lost his mother, and became dependent upon the charity of relations, of whom an uncle, Röck, became mainly responsible for his maintenance and education. He was apprenticed to a carpenter, Langi, in 1855, but shortly afterwards made the acquaintance of the painters Fischer and Szamossy, whom he accompanied to Arad in 1858. From them he received his first real instruction in art. He worked mainly at Budapest during 1863-1865, and at this time first adopted, from patriotic motives, the name by which he is always known. In 1865 he visited Vienna, returning to Budapest in the following year, and went thence to Munich, where he contributed a few drawings to the Fliegende Blätter. About the end of 1867 he was working at Düsseldorf, where he was much influenced by Ludwig Knaus, and painted (18681869) his first picture of importance, The Last Day of a Condemned Prisoner," which was exhibited in the Paris Salon in 1870, and obtained for him a médaille unique and a very considerable reputation. He had already paid a short visit to Paris in 1867, but on the 25th of January 1872 he took up his permanent abode in that city, and remained there during the rest of his working life. Munkacsy's other chief pictures are "Milton dictating Paradise Lost to his Daughters" (Paris Exhibition, 1878), "Christ before Pilate " (1881), "Golgotha" (1883), "The Death of Mozart" (1884), "Arpad, chief of the Magyars, taking possession of Hungary," painted for the new House of Parliament in Budapest, and exhibited at the Salon in 1893, and Ecce Homo." He had hardly completed the latter work when a malady of the brain overtook him, and he died on the 30th of April 1900, at Endenich, near Bonn. Just before his last illness he had been offered the directorship of the Hungarian State Gallery at Budapest. Munkacsy's masterly characterization, force and power of dramatic composition secured him a great vogue for his works, but it is doubtful if his reputation will be maintained at the level it reached during his lifetime." Christ before Pilate " and " Golgotha were sold for £32,000 and £35,000 respectively to an American buyer. Munkacsy received the following awards for his work exhibited at Paris: Medal, 1870; Medal, 2nd class; Legion of Honour, 1877; Medal of Honour, 1878; Officer of the Legion, 1878; Grand Prix, Exhibition of 1889; Commander of the Legion, 1889. See F. Walther Ilges, "M. von Munkacsy," Kunstler Monographien (1899); C. Sedelmeyer, Christ before Pilate (Paris, 1886); J. Beavington Atkinson, "Michael Munkacsy," Magazine of Art (1881). (E. F. S.)

Siberia, where he remained for several years, until the accession of Peter III. brought about his release in 1762. Catherine II., who soon displaced Peter, employed the old field-marshal as director-general of the Baltic ports. He died in 1767. Feldmarschall Münnich was a fine soldier of the professional type, and many future commanders, notably Loudon and Lacy, served their apprenticeship at Ochakov and Khotin. As a statesman he is regarded as the founder of Russian Philhellenism. He had the grade of count of the Holy Roman Empire. The Russian 37th Dragoons bear his name.

He wrote an Ebauche pour donner une idée de la forme de l'empire de Russie (Leipzig, 1774), and his voluminous diaries have appeared in various publications-Herrmann, Beiträge zur Geschichte des russischen Reichs (Leipzig. 1843). See Hempel, Leben Münnichs (Bremen, 1742); Halem, Geschichte des F. M. Grafen Münnich (Oldenburg, 1803; 2nd ed., 1838); Kostomarov, Feldmarschall Münnich (Russische Geschichte in Biographien, v. 2).

MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805), British general, son of Hugh Munro of Novar, in Cromarty, was born in 1726, and entered the army in 1749. He went to Bombay in 1761, in command of the 89th regiment, and in that year effected the surrender of Mahé from the French. Later, when in command of the Bengal army, he suppressed a mutiny of sepoys at Patna, and on the 23rd of October 1764 won the victory of Buxar against Shuja-ud-Dowlah, the nawab wazir of Oudh, and Mir Kasim, which ranks amongst the most decisive battles ever fought in India. Returning home, he became in 1768 M.P. for the Inverness Burghs, which he continued to represent in parliament for more than thirty years, though a considerable portion of this period was spent in India, whither he returned in 1778 to take command of the Madras army. In that year he took Pondicherry from the French, but in 1780 he was defeated by Hyder Ali near Conjeeveram, and forced to fall back on St Thomas's Mount. There Sir Eyre Coote took over command of the army, and in 1781 won a signal victory against Hyder Ali at Porto Novo, where Munro was in command of the right division. Negapatam was taken by Munro in November of the same year; and in 1782 he returned to England. He died on the 27th of December 1805.

MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONE (1819-1885), British scholar, was born at Elgin on the 19th of October 1819. He was educated at Shrewsbury school, where he was one of Kennedy's first pupils, and proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1838. He became scholar of his college in 1840, second classic and first chancellor's medallist in 1842, and fellow of his college in 1843. He became classical lecturer at Trinity College, and in 1869 was elected to the newly-founded chair of Latin at Cambridge, but resigned it in 1872. The great work on which his reputation is mainly based is his edition of Lucretius, the fruit of the labour of many years (text only, vol., 1860; text, commentary and translation, 2 vols., 1864). As a textual critic his knowledge was profound and his judgment unrivalled; and he made close archaeological studies by frequent travels in Italy and Greece. In 1867 he published an improved text of Aetna with commentary, and in the following year a text of Horace with critical introduction, illustrated by specimens of ancient gems selected by C. W. King. His knowledge and taste are nowhere better shown than in his Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus (1878). He was a master of the art of Greek and Latin verse composition. His contri

corolla, are among the most remarkable of a remarkable collection. His Translations into Latin and Greek Verse were privately printed in 1884. Like his translations into English, they are characterized by minute fidelity to the original, but never cease to be idiomatic. He died at Rome on the 30th of March 1885. See Memoir by J. D. Duff, prefixed to a re-issue of the trans. of Lucretius in " Bohn's Classical Library" (1908).

MUNRO, MONRO or MONROE, ROBERT (d. c. 1680), Scots general, was a member of a well-known family in Ross-shire, the Munroes of Foulis. With several of his kinsmen he served in the continental wars under Gustavus Adolphus; and he

appears to have returned to Scotland about 1638, and to have | taken some part in the early incidents of the Scottish rebellion. against Charles I. In 1642 he went to Ireland, nominally as second in command under Alexander Leslie, but in fact in chief command of the Scottish contingent against the Catholic rebels. After taking and plundering Newry in April 1642, and ineffectually attempting to subdue Sir Phelim O'Neill, Munro succeeded in taking prisoner the earl of Antrim at Dunluce. The arrival of Owen Roe O'Neill in Ireland strengthened the cause of the rebels (see O'NEILL), and Munro, who was poorly supplied with provisions and war materials, showed little activity. Moreover, the civil war in England was now creating confusion among parties in Ireland, and the king was anxious to come to terms with the Catholic rebels, and to enlist them on his own behalf against the parliament. The duke of Ormonde, Charles's lieutenantgeneral in Ireland, acting on the king's orders, signed a cessation of hostilities with the Catholics on the 15th of September 1643, and exerted himself to despatch aid to Charles in England. Munro in Ulster, holding his commission from the Scottish parliament, did not recognize the armistice, and his troops accepted the solemn league and covenant, in which they were joined by many English soldiers who left Ormonde to join him. In April 1644 the English parliament entrusted Munro with the command of all the forces in Ulster, both English and Scots. He thereupon seized Belfast, made a raid into the Pale, and unsuccessfully attempted to gain possession of Dundalk and Drogheda. His force was weakened by the necessity for sending troops to Scotland to withstand Montrose; while Owen Roe O'Neill was strengthened by receiving supplies from Spain and the pope. On the 5th of June 1646 was fought the battle of Benburb, on the Blackwater, where O'Neill routed Munro, but suffered him to withdraw in safety to Carrickfergus. In 1647 Ormonde was compelled to come to terms with the English parliament, who sent commissioners to Dublin in June of that year. The Scots under Munro refused to surrender Carrickfergus and Belfast when ordered by the parliament to return to Scotland, and Munro was superseded by the appointment of Monk to the chief command in Ireland. In September 1648 Carrickfergus was delivered over to Monk by treachery, and Munro was taken prisoner. He was committed to the Tower of London, where he remained a prisoner for five years. 1654 he was permitted by Cromwell to reside in Ireland, where he had estates in right of his wife, who was the widow of Viscount Montgomery of Ardes. Munro continued to live quietly near Comber, Co. Down, for many years, and probably died there about 1680. He was in part the original of Dugald Dalgetty in Sir Walter Scott's Legend of Montrose.

In

See Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde (6 vols., Oxford, 1851); Sir J. T. Gilbert, Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland 1641-1652 (3 vols., Dublin, 1879-1880) and History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland (7 vols., Dublin, 1882-1891); John Spalding, Memorials of the Troubles in Scotland and England (2 vols., Aberdeen, 1850); The Montgomery MSS., 1603-1703, edited by G. Hill (Belfast, 1869); Sir Walter Scott, The Legend of Montrose, author's preface.

MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827), Anglo-Indian soldier and statesman, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of May 1761, the son of a merchant. Educated at Glasgow University, he was at first intended to enter his father's business, but in 1789 he was appointed to an infantry cadetship in Madras. He served with his regiment during the hard-fought war against Hyder Ali (1780-83), and again in the first campaign against Tippoo (1790-92). He was then chosen as one of four military officers to administer the Baramahal, part of the territory acquired from Tippoo, where he remained for seven years, learning the principles of revenue survey and assessment which he afterwards applied throughout the presidency of Madras. After the final downfall of Tippoo in 1799, he spent a short time restoring order in Kanara; and then for another seven years (1800-1807) he was placed in charge of the northern districts "ceded" by the nizam of Hyderabad, where he introduced the ryotwari system of land revenue. After a long furlough in England, during which he gave valuable evidence upon

matters connected with the renewal of the company's charter, he returned to Madras in 1814 with special instructions to reform the judicial and police systems. On the outbreak of the Pindari War in 1817, he was appointed as brigadier-general to command the reserve division formed to reduce the southern territories of the Peshwa. Of his signal services on this occasion Canning said in the House of Commons: "He went into the field with not more than five or six hundred men, of whom a very small proportion were Europeans.... Nine forts were surrendered to him or taken by assault on his way; and at the end of a silent and scarcely observed progress he emerged. . . leaving everything secure and tranquil behind him." In 1820 he was appointed governor of Madras, where he founded the systems of revenue assessment and general administration which substantially remain to the present day. His official minutes, published by Sir A. Arbuthnot, form a manual of experience and advice for the modern civilian. He died of cholera on the 6th of July 1827, while on tour in the "ceded "districts, where his name is preserved by more than one memorial. An equestrian statue of him, by Chantrey, stands in Madras city.

See biographies by G. R. Gleig (1830), Sir A. Arbuthnot (1881) and J. Bradshaw (1894).

MUNSHI, or MOONSHI, the Urdu name of a writer or secretary, used in India of the native language teachers or secretaries employed by Europeans.

MÜNSTER, GEORG, COUNT ZU (1776-1844), German palaeontologist, was born on the 17th of February 1776. He formed a famous collection of fossils, which was ultimately secured by the Bavarian state, and formed the nucleus of the palaeontological museum at Munich. Count Münster assisted Goldfuss in his great work Pctrefacta Germaniae. He died at Bayreuth on the 23rd of December 1844.

MÜNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552), German geographer, mathematician and Hebraist, was born at Ingelheim in the Palatinate. After studying at Heidelberg and Tübingen, he entered the Franciscan order, but abandoned it for Lutheranism about 1529. Shortly afterwards he was appointed court preacher at Heidelberg, where he also lectured in Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis. From 1536 he taught at Basel, where he published his Cosmographia universalis in 1544, and where he died of the plague on the 23rd of May 1552. A disciple of Elias Levita, he was the first German to edit the Hebrew Bible (2 vols., fol., Basel, 1534-1535); this edition was accompanied by a new Latin translation and a large number of annotations. He published more than one Hebrew grammar, and was the first to prepare a Grammatica chaldaica (Basel, 1527). His lexicographical labours included a Dictionarium chaldaicum (1527), and a Dictionarium trilingue, of Latin, Greek and Hebrew (1530). But his most important work was his Cosmographia, which also appeared in German as a Beschreibung aller Länder, the first detailed, scientific and popular description of the world in Münster's native language, as well as a supreme effort of geographical study and literature in the Reformation period. In this Münster was assisted by more than one hundred and twenty collaborators.

The most valued edition of the Cosmographia or Beschreibung is that of 1550, especially prized for its portraits and its city and costume pictures. Besides the works mentioned above we may notice Münster's Germaniae descriptio of 1530, his Novus orbis of of Solinus, Mela and Ptolemy in 1538-1540 and among non1532, his Mappa Europae of 1536, his Rhaelia of 1538, his editions geographical treatises his Horologiographia, 1531, on dialling (see DIAL), his Organum uranicum of 1530 on the planetary motions, and his Rudimenta mathematica of 1551. His published maps numbered 142.

See V. Hantzsch, Sebastian Münster (1898), in vol. xviii. of the Publications of the Royal Society of Sciences of Saxony, HistoricalPhilological Section).

MÜNSTER, a town of Germany, in the district of Upper Alsace, 16 m. from Colmar by rail, and at the foot of the Vosges Mountains. Pop. (1905), 6078. Its principal industries are spinning, weaving and bleaching. The town owes its origin to a Benedictine abbey, which was founded in the 7th century, and at one time it was a free city of the empire. In its

See Rathgeber, Münster-im-Gregoriental (Strassburg, 1874) and F. Hecker, Die Stadt und das Tal zu Münster im St Gregoriental (Münster, 1890).

MÜNSTER, a town of Germany, capital of the Prussian province of Westphalia, and formerly the capital of an important bishopric. It lies in a sandy plain on the Dortmund-Ems canal, at the junction of several railways, 107 m. S.W. of Bremen on the line to Cologne. Pop. (1885), 44,060; (1905) 81,468. The town preserves its medieval character, especially in the "Prinzipal-Markt " and other squares, with their lofty gabled houses and arcades. The fortifications were dismantled during the 18th century, their place being taken by gardens and promenades. Of the many churches of Münster the most important is the cathedral, one of the most striking in Germany, although disfigured by modern decorations. It was rebuilt in the 13th and 14th centuries, and exhibits a combination of Romanesque and Gothic forms; its chapter-house is specially fine. The beautiful Gothic church of St Lambert (14th century) was largely rebuilt after 1868; on its tower, which is 312 ft. in height, hang three iron cages in which the bodies of John of Leiden and two of his followers were exposed in 1536. The church of St Ludger, erected in the Romanesque style about 1170, was extended in the Gothic style about 200 years later; it has a tower with a picturesque lantern. The church of St Maurice, founded about 1070, was rebuilt during the 19th century, and the Gothic church of Our Lady dates from the 14th century. Other noteworthy buildings are the town-hall, a fine Gothic building of the 14th century, and the Stadtkeller, which contains a collection of early German paintings. The room in the townhall called the Friedens Saal, in which the peace of Westphalia was signed in October 1648, contains portraits of many ambassadors and princes who were present at the ceremony. The Schloss, built in 1767, was formerly the residence of bishops of Münster. The private houses, many of which were the winter residences of the nobility of Westphalia, are admirable examples of German domestic architecture in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The university of Münster, founded after the Seven Years' War and closed at the beginning of the 19th century, was reopened as an academy in 1818, and again attained the rank of a university in 1902. It possesses faculties of theology, philosophy and law. In connexion with it are botanical and zoological gardens, several scientific collections, and a library of 120,000 volumes. Münster is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop and of the administrative and judicial authorities of Westphalia, and is the headquarters of an army corps. The Westphalian society of antiquaries and several other learned bodies also have their headquarters here. Industries include weaving, dycing, brewing and printing, and the manufacture of furniture and machines. There is a brisk trade in cattle, grain and other products of the neighbourhood.

History.-Münster is first mentioned about the year 800, when Charlemagne made it the residence of Ludger, the newlyappointed bishop of the Saxons. Owing to its distance from any available river or important highway, the growth of the settlement round the monasterium was slow, and it was not until after 1186 that it received a charter, the name Münster having supplanted the original name of Mimcgardevoord about a century earlier. During the 13th and 14th centuries the town was one of the most prominent members of the Hanseatic League. At the time of the Reformation the citizens were inclined to adopt the Protestant doctrines, but the excesses of the Anabaptists led in 1535 to the armed intervention of the bishop and to the forcible suppression of all divergence from the older faith. The Thirty Years' War, during which Münster suffered much from the Protestant armies, was terminated by the peace of Westphalia, sometimes called the peace of Münster, because it was signed here on the 24th of October 1648. The authority of the bishops, who seldom resided at Münster, was usually somewhat limited, but in 1661 Bishop

citadel, and deprived the citizens of many of their privileges. During the Seven Years' War Münster was occupied both by the French and by their foes. Towards the close of the 18th century the town was recognized as one of the intellectual centres of Germany.

The bishopric of Münster embraced an area of about 2500 sq.m. and contained about 350,000 inhabitants. Its bishops, who resided generally at Ahaus, were princes of the empire. In the 17th century Bishop Galen, with his army of 20,000 men, was so powerful that his alliance was sought by Charles II. of England and other European sovereigns. The bishopric was secularized and its lands annexed to Prussia in 1803.

See Geisberg, Merkwürdigkeiten der Stadt Münster (1877); Erhard, Geschichte Münsters (1837); A. Tibus, Die Stadt Münster (Münster, Stadt Münster (Münster, 1898); Pieper, Die alle Universität Munster 1882); Hellinghaus, Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der 1773-1818 (Münster, 1902). See also Tücking, Geschichte des Stifts Münster unter C. B. von Galen (Münster, 1865).

MUNSTER, a province of Ireland occupying the S.W. part of the island. It includes the counties Clare, Tipperary, Limerick, Kerry, Cork and Waterford (q.v. for topography, &c.). After the occupation of Ireland by the Milesians, Munster (Mumha) became nominally a provincial kingdom; but as the territory was divided between two families there was constant friction and it was not until 237 that Oliol Olum established himself as king over the whole. In 248 he divided his kingdom between his two sons, giving Desmond (q.v., Des-Mumha) to Eoghan and Thomond (Tuadh-Mumha) or north Munster to Cormac. He also stipulated that the rank of king of Munster should belong in turn to their descendants. In this way the kingship of Munster survived until 1194; but there were kings of Desmond and Thomond down to the 16th century. Munster was originally of the same extent as the present province, excepting that it included the district of Ely, which belonged to the O'Carrols and formed a part of the present King's County. During the 16th century, however, Thomond was for a time included in Connaught, being declared a county under the name of Clare (q.v.) by Sir Henry Sidney. Part of Munster had been included in the system of shiring generally attributed to King John. In 1570 a provincial presidency of Munster (as of Connaught) was established by Sidney, Sir John Perrot being the first president, and lasted until 1672. Under Perrot a practically new shiring was carried out.

MÜNSTER AM STEIN, a watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Nahe, 24 m. S. of Kreuznach, on the railway from Bingerbrück to Strassburg. Pop. (1905), 915. Above the village are the ruins of the castle of Rheingrafenstein (12th century), formerly a seat of the count palatine of the Rhine, which was destroyed by the French in 1689, and those of the castle of Ebernburg, the ancestral seat of the lords of Sickingen, and the birthplace of Franz von Sickingen, the famous landsknecht captain and protector of Ulrich von Hutten, to whom a monument was erected on the slope near the ruins in 1889. The spa (saline and carbonate springs), specific in cases of feminine disorders, is visited by about 5000 patients annually.

See Welsch, Das Sol- und Thermalbad Münster am Stein (Kreuznach, 1886) and Messer, Führer durch Bad Kreuznach und Münster am Stein (Kreuznach, 1905).

MÜNSTERBERG, HUGO (1863- ), German-American psychophysiologist, was born at Danzig. Having been extraordinary professor at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, he became in 1892 professor of psychology at Harvard University. Among his more important works are Beiträge zur experimentellen Psychologie (4 vols., Freiburg, 1889-1892); Psychology and Life (New York, 1899); Grundzüge der Psychologie (Leipzig, 1900); American Traits from the Point of View of a German (Boston, 1901); Die Amerikaner (several ed.; Eng. trans. 1904); Science and Idealism (New York, 1906); Philosophie der Werte (Leipzig, 1908); Aus Deutsch-Amerika (Berlin, 1908); Psychology and Crime (New York, 1908). He has been prominently identified with the modern developments of experimental psychology

(see PSYCHOLOGY), and his sociological writings display the acuteness of a German philosophic mind as applied to the study of American life and manners.

MÜNSTERBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the Ohlau, 36 m. by rail S. of Breslau. Pop. (1905), 8475. It is partly surrounded by medieval walls. It has manufactures of drain-pipes and fireproof bricks; there are also sulphur springs. Münsterberg was formerly the capital of the principality of the same name, which existed from the 14th century down to 1791, when it was purchased by the Prussian crown. Near the town is the former Cistercian abbey of Heinrichau.

MUNTANER, RAMON (1265-1336?), Catalan historian, was born at Peralada (Catalonia) in 1265. The chief events of his career are recorded in his chronicle. He accompanied Roger de Flor to Sicily in 1300, was present at the siege of Messina, served in the expedition of the Almogavares against Asia Minor, and became the first governor of Gallipoli. Later he was appointed governor of Jerba or Zerbi, an island in the Gulf of Gabes, and finally entered the service of the infante of Majorca. On the 15th of May 1325 (some editions give the year 1335) he began his Chronica, o descripcio dels fets, e hazanas del inclyt rey Don Iaume Primer, in obedience, as he says, to the express command of God who appeared to him in a vision. Muntaner's book, which was first printed at Valencia in 1558, is the chief authority for the events of his period, and his narrative, though occasionally prolix, uncritical and egotistical, is faithful and vivid. He is said to have died in 1336.

His chronicle is most accessible in the edition published by Karl Lanz at Stuttgart in 1844

MUNTJAC, the Indian name of a small deer typifying the genus Cervulus, all the members of which are indigenous to the southern and eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent islands, and are separated by marked characters from all their allies. For the distinctive features of the genus see DEER. As regards general characteristics, all muntjacs are small compared with the majority of deer, and have long bodies and rather short limbs and neck. The antlers of the bucks are small and simple;

The Indian Muntjac (Cervulus muntjac).

the main stem or beam, after giving off a short brow-tine, inclining backwards and upwards, being unbranched and pointed, and when fully developed curving inwards and somewhat downwards at the tip. These small antlers are supported upon pedicles, or processes of the frontal bones, longer than in any other deer, the front edges of these being continued downwards as strong ridges passing along the sides of the face above the eyes. From this feature the name rib-faced deer has been suggested for the muntjac. The upper canine teeth of the males are large and sharp, projecting outside the mouth as tusks, and loosely implanted in their sockets. In the females they are much smaller.bwa adi v logins at had noites

Muntjacs are solitary animals, even two being rarely seen together. They are fond of hilly ground covered with forests, in the dense thickets of which they pass most of their time, only coming to the skirts of the woods at morning and evening to graze. They carry the head and neck low and the hind-quarters high, their action in running being peculiar and not elegant, somewhat resembling the pace of a sheep. Though with no power of sustained speed or extensive leaping, they are remarkable for flexibility of body and facility of creeping through tangled underwood. A popular name with Indian sportsmen is "barking deer," on account of the alarm-cry-a kind of short shrill bark, like that of a fox, but louder. When attacked by dogs, the males use their sharp canine teeth, which inflict deep and even dangerous wounds.

In the Indian muntjac the height of the buck is from 20 to 22 in.; allied types, some of which have received distinct names, occur in Burma and the Malay Peninsula and Islands. Among these, the large antlers. The Tibetan muntjac (C. lachrymans), from Moupin Burmese C. muntjac grandicornis is noteworthy on account of its in eastern Tibet and Hangchow in China, is somewhat smaller than the Indian animal, with a bright reddish-brown coat. The smallest member of the genus (C. reevesi) occurs in southern China and has a band down the nape. The Tenasserim muntjac (C. feae), about the reddish-chestnut coat, speckled with yellowish grey and a black size of the Indian species, is closely allied to the hairy-fronted muntjac (C. crinifrons) of eastern China, but lacks the tuft of hair on the forehead. The last-mentioned species, by its frontal tuft, connects the typical muntjacs with the small tufted deer or tufted small rounded ears, general brown coloration, and minute antlers, muntjacs of the genus Elaphodus of eastern China and Tibet. These last have coarse bristly hair of a purplish-brown colour with light markings, very large head-tufts, almost concealing the minute antlers, of which the pedicles do not extend as ribs down the face. They include E. cephalophus of Tibet, E. michianus of Ningpo, and E. ichangensis of the mountains of Ichang.

(R. L.)

His

MÜNZER, THOMAS (c. 1489-1525), German religious enthusiast, was born at Stolberg in the Harz near the end of the 15th century, and educated at Leipzig and Frankfort, graduating in theology. He held preaching appointments in various places, but his restless nature prevented him from remaining in one position for any length of time. In 1520 he became a preacher at the church of St Mary, Zwickau, and his rude eloquence, together with his attacks on the monks, soon raised him to influence. Aided by Nicholas Storch, he formed a society the principles of which were akin to those of the Taborites, and claimed that he was under the direct influence of the Holy Spirit. His zeal for the purification of the Church by casting out all unbelievers brought him into conflict with the governing body of the town, and he was compelled to leave Zwickau. He then went to Prague, where his preaching won numerous adherents, but his violent language brought about his expulsion from this city also. At Easter 1523 Münzer came to Allstedt, and was soon appointed preacher at the church of St John, where he made extensive alterations in the services. violence, however, aroused the hostility of Luther, in retaliation for which Münzer denounced the Wittenberg teaching. His preaching soon produced an uproar in Allstedt, and after holding his own for some time he left the town and went to Mühlhausen, where Heinrich Pfeiffer was already preaching doctrines similar to his own. The union of Münzer and Pfeiffer caused a disturbance in this city and both were expelled. Münzer went to Nuremberg, where he issued a writing against Luther, who had been mainly instrumental in bringing about his expulsion from Saxony. About this time his teaching became still more violent. He denounced established governments, and advocated common ownership of the means of life. After a tour in south Germany he returned to Mühlhausen, overthrew the governing body of the city, and established a communistic theocracy. The Peasants' War had already broken out in various parts of Germany; and as the peasantry around Mühlhausen were imbued with Münzer's teaching, he collected a large body of men to plunder the surrounding country. He established his camp at Frankenhausen; but on the 15th of May 1525 the peasants were dispersed by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, who captured Münzer and executed him on the 27th, at Mühlhausen. Before his