king of Assyria ("Behold, I am against thee, saith the Lord of and of a Greek (Old-United) bishopric. Among its principal | the city is mentioned by name in ii. 8 (9 Heb. text)-its capture buildings are the St Ladislaus parish church, built in 1723, which contains the remains of the king St Ladislaus (d. 1095), the Roman Catholic cathedral, built in 1752-1779, the Greek cathedral, the large palace of the Roman Catholic bishop, built in 1778 in the rococo style, the archaeological and historical museum, with an interesting collection of eccles astical art, and the county and town hall. Among the educational establishments are a law academy, a seminary for priests, a modern school, a Roman Catholic and a Calvinistic gymnasium, a commercial academy, a training school for teachers and a secondary school for girls. Nagy-Várad is an important railway junction; it possesses extensive manufactures of pottery and large distilleries, and carries on a brisk trade in agricultural produce, cattle, horses, fruit and wine. About 6 m. S. of the town is the village of Hajó, which contains the Püspök Fürdö or Bishop's Baths, with warm saline and sulphurous waters (92° to 103° F.), used both for drinking and bathing in cases of anaemia and scrofula. Nagy-Várad is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. Its bishopric was founded by St Ladislaus in 1080. The town was destroyed by the Tatars in 1241. Peace was concluded here on the 24th of February 1538 between Ferdinand I. of Austria and his rival John Zápolya, voivode of Transylvania. In 1556 it passed into the possession of Transylvania, but afterwards reverted to Austria. In 1598 the fortress was unsuccessfully besieged by the Turks, but it fell into their hands in 1660 and was recovered by the Austrians in 1692. The Greek Old-United or Catholic bishopric was founded in 1776. NAHE, a river of Germany, a left-bank tributary of the Rhine, rises near Selbach in the Oldenburg principality of Birkenfeld. For some distance it forms the boundary between the Bavarian Palatinate and the Prussian Rhine Province, and it falls into the Rhine at Bingen. Its length is 78 m., but it is too shallow and rocky to be navigable. Its picturesque valley, through which runs the railway from Bingerbrück to Neunkirchen, is largely visited by tourists. See Schneegans, Geschichte des Nahetals (Kreuznach, 1890). NAHUATLAN STOCK, a North and Central American Indian stock. Nahuas or Nahuatlecas was the collective name for the dominant Indian peoples of Mexico at the time of the Spanish conquest, and the Nahuatlan stock consisted of the Nahuas (or Aztecs) and a few scattered tribes in Central America. NAHUM (Hebrew for "rich in comfort [is God]"), an Old Testament prophet. The name occurs only in the book of Nahum; in Nehemiah vii. 7 it is a scribal error for "Rehum." Of the prophet himself all that is known is the statement of the title that he was an Elkoshite. But the locality denoted by the designation is quite uncertain. Later tradition associated Nahum with the region of Nineveh, against which he prophesied, and hence his tomb has been located at a place bearing the name of Alkush near Mosul (anc. Nineveh) and is still shown. According to Jerome, the prophet was a native of a village in Galilee, which bore the name of Elkesi in the 4th century A.D. (the Galilean town of Capernaum, which probably means "village of Nahum," may also point in the same direction; but cf. John vii. 29, which seems to imply that in the time of Christ no prophet was supposed to have come out of Galilee). E. Nestle has proposed to locate Elkesi "beyond Betogabra " (i.e. Eleutheropolis, mod. Beit Jibrin) in the tribe of Simeon (cf. Pal. Expl. Fund Quart. Statement, 1879, pp. 136-138). BOOK OF NAHUM.-The original heading of Nahum's prophecy is contained in the second part of the superscription: "[The book of] the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite" (cf. the similar headings in Isaiah, Obadiah and Habakkuk). The first part ("Oracle concerning Nineveh ") is a late editorial insertion, but correctly describes the main contents of the little book. Contents of the Book. (1) Chapters i. and ii.-The prophecy against Nineveh in its present form really begins with chap. ii. 1, followed immediately by v. 3, and readily falls into three parts, viz. (a) ii. 1, 3-10; (b) ii. 11-13; and (c) iii. Here (a) describes in language of considerable descriptive power the assault on Nineveh'Jonah's grave has been located similarly in Nineveh itself. Regarding chap. i. and ii. 2(=i. and ii. 1, 3, Heb. text) there has been much discussion in recent years. It was long ago noticed that traces of an alphabetic acrostic survive in this section of the book; throughout the whole of chap. i. there is no reference to Nineveh, though in some of the verses (8-124, 14) the enemies of Yahweh are addressed, who have usually been identified with the people or city of Nineveh; in w. 12b, 13 and (certainly) v. 15 (=ii. 1 Heb.) Judah appears to be addressed. The text of i. 1-15, ii. 1-2 has been reconstructed by H. Gunkel and G. Bickell so as to form a complete alphabetic psalm with contents of an eschatological character, and is regarded by them as a later addition to the book. It may be a generalizing supplement " prefixed by the editor, possibly because the original introduction to the oracle had been mutilated. It is generally held by critical scholars that i. 1-8, 13, 15, and ii. 2 ccrtainly do not proceed from Nahum; i. 9-12 may, however, belong to the prophet. The phenomena are conflicting and a completely satisfactory solution seems to be impossible. Date of Nahum's Oracle.-The date of the composition of Nahum's prophecy must lie between 607-606, when Nineveh was captured and destroyed by the Babylonians and Medes, and the capture of Thebes (No-Amon) which is alluded to in iii. 8-10. This was effected for the second time and most completely by The tone of the prophecy Assur-bani-pal in 663 or 662 B.C. suggests, on the one hand, that the fall of Nineveh is imminent, while, on the other, the reference to Thebes suggests that the disaster that had befallen it was still freshly remembered. On the whole a date somewhat near 606 is more probable. It is noteworthy that no reference is made to the restoration of the The poetry northern kingdom of Israel, or the return of its exiles. of the book is of a high order. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-The Commentaries on the Minor Prophets, especially those of J. Wellhausen, D. W. Nowack and K. Marti (all German); G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets (2 vols.); A. B. Davidson, Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah (Camb. Bible, 1896). (G. H. Bo.) NAIK, or NAYAK, from a Sanskrit word meaning a leader, a In the army it denotes a title used in India in various senses. rank corresponding to that of corporal; and Hyder Ali of Mysore was proud of being called Haidar Naik, analogous to "le petit caporal" for Napoleon. It was also the title of the petty dynasties that arose in S. India on the downfall of the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar in the 16th century. NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger., Swed. nagel; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. övvg, Sans. nakhās) a word applied both to the horny covering to the upper surface of the extremities of the fingers and toes of man and the Quadrumana (see SKIN and DERMAL SKELETON), and also to a headed pin or spike of metal, commonly of iron. The principal use of nails is in wood. numerous other trades. Size, form of head, nature of point, and work (joinery and carpentery), but they are also employed in special uses all give names to different classes of nails. Thus we have tacks, sprigs and brads for very small nails; rose, clasp and clout, according to the for: of head; and flat points or sharp points according to the taper of the spike. According to the method of manufacture nails fall into four principal classes: (1) hand-wrought nails; (2) machine-wrought and cut nails; (3) wire or French nails; and (4) cast nails. " NAINI TAL, a town and district of British India, in the Kumaon division of the United Provinces. The town is 6400 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 7609. Naini Tal is a popular sanatorium for the residents in the plains, and the summer head lake, surrounded by high mountains, and is subject to landslides; The nailer handicraft was formerly a great industry in the country around Birmingham. The nails are forged from nail-quarters of the government of the province. It is situated on a rods heated in a small smith's hearth, hammered on an anvil, the nail length cut off on a chisel and the head formed by dropping the spike into a hole in a "bolster " of steel, from which enough of the spike is left projecting to form the head. In the case of clasp nails the head is formed with two strokes of the hammer, while rose nails require four. The heads of the larger-sized nails are made with an "oliver or mechanical hammer, and for ornamental or stamped heads " swages or dies are employed. The conditions of life and labour among the hand nailers in England were exceedingly unsatisfactory: married women and young children of both sexes working long hours in small filthy sheds attached to their dwellings; their employment was controlled by middle-men or nail-masters, who supplied them with the nail-rods and paid for work done, sometimes in money and sometimes in kind on the truck system. Machine-wrought and cut nails have supplanted most corresponding kinds of hand-made nails. Horse nails are still made by hand-labour. These are made from the finest Swedish charcoal iron, hammered out to a sharp point. They must be tough and homogeneous throughout, so that there may be no danger of their breaking over and leaving portions in the hoof. In 1617 Sir D. Bulmer devised a machine for cutting nail-rods, and in 1790 T. Clifford patented a device for shaping the rods, but the credit of perfecting machinery mainly belongs to American enterprise (the first American patent appears to be that of Ezekiel Reed, dated 1786). The machine, fed with heated (to black heat only) strips of metal, usually mild steel, having a breadth and thickness sufficient for the nail to be made, shears off by its slicer the "nail blank," which, falling down, is firmly clutched at the neck till a heading die strikes against its upper end and forms the head, the completed nail passing out through an inclined shoot. In large nails the taper of the shank and point is secured by the sectional form to which the strips are rolled; brads, sprigs and small nails, on the other hand, are cut from uniform strips in an angular direction from head to point, | the strip being turned over after each blank is cut so that the points and heads are taken from opposite sides alternately, and a uniform taper on two opposite sides of the nail, from head to point, is secured. The machines turn out nails with wonderful rapidity, varying with the size of the nails produced from about 100 to 1000 per minute. Wire or French nails are made from round wire, which is unwound, straightened, cut into lengths and headed by a machine either by intermittent blows or by pressure, but the pointing is accomplished by the pressure of dies. Cast nails, which are cast in sand moulds by the ordinary process, are used principally for horticultural purposes, and the hob-nails or tackets of shoemakers are also cast. See Peter Barlow, Encyclopaedia of Arts, Manufactures and Machinery (1848); Bucknall Smith, Wire, Its Manufacture and Uses (New York, 1891). NAIL VIOLIN (Ger. Nagelgeige, Nagelharmonica), a musical curiosity invented by Johann Wilde, a musician in the imperial orchestra at St. Petersburg. The nail violin or harmonica consists of a wooden soundboard about 14 ft. long and 1 ft. wide bent into a semicircle. In this soundboard are fixed a number of iron or brass nails of different lengths, tuned to give a chromatic scale. Sound is produced by friction with a strong bow, strung with black horsehair. An improved instrument, now in the collection of the Hochschule in Berlin, has two half-moon sound-chests of different sizes, one on the top of the other, forming terraces. In the rounded wall of the upper sound-chest are two rows of iron staples, the upper giving the diatonic scale, and the lower the intermediate chromatic semitones. History records the name of a single virtuoso on this instrument, which has a sweet bell-like tone but limited technical possibilities; he was a Bohemian musician called Senal, who travelled all over Germany with his instrument about 1780-1790. (K. S.) NAIRN, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of Nairnshire, Scotland. Pop. of the royal burgh (1901) 5089. It is situated on the Moray Firth, at the mouth of the Nairn and on its left bank, 15 m. N.E. of Inverness by the Highland railway. The town, though of immemorial age, shows no signs of its antiquity, being bright, neat and modern. It attracts many summer visitors by its good sea bathing and excellent golf-course. The industries include salmon fishing, deep-sea fishing, the making of rope and twine and the freestone quarries of the neighbourhood. There is a commodious harbour with breakwater and pier. Nairn belongs to the Inverness district group of parliamentary burghs (Forres, Fortrose, Inverness and Nairn). Nairn was originally called Invernarne (the mouth of the Nairn). It was made a royal burgh by Alexander I. (d. 1124), but this charter having been lost it was confirmed by James VI. in 1589. NAIRNE, CAROLINA, BARONESS (1766-1845), Scottish song writer, was born in the "auld hoose" of Gask, Perthshire, on the 16th of August 1766. She was descended from an old family which had settled in Perthshire in the 13th century, and could boast of kinship with the royal race of Scotland. Her father, Laurence Oliphant, was one of the foremost supporters of the Jacobite cause, and she was named Carolina in memory of Prince Charles Edward. In the schoolroom she was known as "pretty Miss Car," and afterwards her striking beauty and pleasing manners earned for her the name of the " Flower of Strathearn." In 1806 she married W. M. Nairne, who became Baron Nairne (see below) in 1824. Following the example set by Burns in the Scots Musical Museum, she undertook to bring out a collection of national airs set to appropriate words. To the collection she contributed a large number of original songs, adopting the signature "B. B."-" Mrs Bogan of Bogan." The music was edited by R. A. Smith, and the collection was published at Edinburgh under the name of the Scottish Minstrel (18211824). After her husband's death in 1830 Lady Nairne took up her residence at Enniskerry, Co. Wicklow, but she spent much time abroad. She died at Gask on the 26th of October 1845. Her songs may be classed under three heads: (1) those illustrative of the characters and manners of the old Scottish gentry, such as "The Laird o' Cockpen," "The Fife Laird," and "John Tod "; (2) Jacobite songs, composed for the most part to gratify her kinsman Robertson, the aged chief of Strowan, among the best known of which are perhaps "Wha 'll be King but Charlie?" " Charlie is my darling," "The Hundred Pipers," He's owre the Hills," and "Bonnie Charlie's noo awa "; and (3) songs not included under the above heads, ranging over a variety of subjects from "Caller Herrin' to the "Land o' the Leal." For vivacity, genuine pathos and bright wit her songs are surpassed only by those of Burns. Lady Nairne's husband, William Murray Nairne (1757-1830). He was descended from Sir Robert Nairne of Strathord (c. 16201683), a supporter of Charles II., who was created Baron Nairne in 1681. After his death without issue the barony passed to his son-in-law, Lord William Murray (c. 1665-1726), the husband of his only daughter Margaret (1669-1747) and a younger son of John Murray, 1st marquess of Athole. William, who took the name of Nairne and became 2nd Baron Nairne, joined the standard of the Jacobites in 1715; he was taken prisoner at the battle of Preston and was sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned, but his title was forfeited. His son John (c. 16911770), who but for this forfeiture would have been the 3rd Baron Nairne, was also taken prisoner at Preston, but he was soon set at liberty. In the rising of 1745 he was one of the Jacobite leaders, being present at the battles of Prestonpans, of Falkirk and of Culloden, and consequently he was attainted in 1746; but escaped to France. His son John (d. 1782) was the father of William Murray Nairne, who, being restored to the barony of Nairne in 1824, became the 5th baron. The male line became extinct when his son William, the 6th baron (1808-1837), died unmarried. The next heir was a cousin, Margaret, Baroness Keith of Stonehaven Marischal (1788-1867), wife of Auguste Charles Joseph, comte de Flahaut de la Billarderie, but she did not claim the title. In 1874, however, the right of her daughter, the wife of the 4th marquess of Lansdowne, was allowed by the House of Lords. For Lady Nairne's songs, see Lays from Strathearn, arranged with Symphonies and Accompaniments for the Pianoforte by Finlay Dun (1846); vol. i. of the Modern Scottish Minstrel (1857): Life and Songs of the Baroness Nairne, with a Memoir and Poems of Caroline Oliphant the Younger, edited by Charles Rogers (1869, new ed. 1886). See also T. L. Kington-Oliphant, Jacobile Lairds of Gask (1870). NAIRNSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland, bounded W. and S. by Inverness-shire, E. by Elginshire and N. by the Moray Firth. It has an area of 103,429 acres or 161.6 sq. m., and a coast line of 9 m. and is the fourth smallest county in Scotland. The seaboard, which is skirted by sandbanks dangerous to navigation, is lined by low dunes extending into Elginshire. Parallel with the coast there is a deposit of sand and gravel about 90 ft. high stretching inland for 4 or 5 m. This and the undulating plain behind are a continuation westward of the fertile Laigh of Moray. From this region southward the land rises rapidly to the confines of Inverness-shire, where the chief heights occur. Several of these border hills exceed 2000 ft. in altitude, the highest being Carn Glas (2162 ft.). The only rivers of importance are the Findhorn and the Nairn, both rising in Inverness-shire. The Findhorn after it leaves that county takes a mainly north-easterly direction down Strathdearn for 17 m. and enters the sea to the north of Forres in Elginshire after a total course of 70 m. The Nairn, shortly after issuing from Strathnairn, flows towards the N.E. for 12 m. out of its complete course of 38 m. and falls into the Moray Firth at the county town. There are eight lochs, all small, but the loch of Clans is of particular interest because of its examples of crannogs, or lake-dwellings. Nairnshire contains many beautiful woods and much picturesque and romantic scenery. Geology. The county is divided geologically into two clearly; marked portions. The southern and larger portion is composed of the eastern, Dalradian or younger Highland schists with associated granite masses; this forms all the higher ground. The low-lying northern part of the country bordering Moray Firth is occupied by Old Red Sandstone. The schistose rocks are mainly thin bedded micaceous gneisses, schists and quartzites; between Dallaschyle and Creag an Daimb a more massive higher horizon appears in the centre of a synclinal fold. Porphyritic gneiss is found on the flanks of Carn nan tri-tighearnan. The schists are frequently intersected by dikes of granite, amphibolite, &c. Three masses of granite are found penetrating the schists: the largest lies on the eastern boundary and extends from about Lethen Bar Hill southward by Ardclach and Glenferness to the Bridge of Dulsie. The second mass on the opposite side of the county belongs mainly to Inverness but the granite reaches into Nairn on the slopes of Bein nan Creagan and Ben Buidhe Mhor. A smaller mass near Rait Castle, with large | pink crystals of orthoclase, has been employed as a building stone. History. The country was originally peopled by the Gaclic or northern Picts. Stone circles believed to have been raised by them are found at Moyness, Auldearn, Urchany, Ballinrait, Dalcross and Croy, the valley of the Nairn being especially rich in such relics. To the north of Dulsie Bridge is a monolith called the Princess Stone. A greater number of the mysterious prehistoric stones with cup-markings occur in Nairn than any. where else in Scotland. Mote hills are also common. Whether there was any effective Roman occupation of the land so far north is an open question, but there is little evidence of it in Nairn, beyond the occasional finding of Roman coins. Columba and his successors made valiant efforts to Christianize the Picts, but it was long before their labours began to tell, although the saint's name was preserved late in the 19th century in the annual fair at Auldearn called St Colm's Market," while to his biographer Adamnan-corrupted into Evan or Wean-was dedicated the church at Cawdor, where an old Celtic bell also bears this name. By the dawn of the roth century the Picts had been subdued with the help of the Norsemen, and Nairn, which was one of the districts colonized by the Scandinavians, as part of the ancient province of Moray, soon afterwards became an integral portion of the kingdom of Scotland. Macbeth was one of the kings that Moray gave to Scotland, and his name and memory survive to the present day. Hardmuir, between Brodie and Nairn, is the reputed heath where Macbeth met the witches. Territorially Moray was greatly contracted in the reign of David I., and thenceforward the history of Nairn merges in the main in that of the bishopric and earldom of Moray (see ELGIN). The thane of Cawdor was constable of the king's castle at Nairn, and when the heritable sheriffdom was established towards the close of the 14th century this office was also filled by the thane of the time. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Charles J. G. Rampini, History of Moray and Nairn (Edinburgh, 1897); Book of the Thanes of Cawdor (Spalding Club) (Edinburgh, 1859); Brodie Cruickshank, Place Names of Nairnshire (1897); G. Bain, The Clova Cairns and Circles (Nairn, 1899). NAIROBI, capital of the British East Africa protectorate and of the province of Ukamba, 327 m. by rail N.W. of Mombasa and 257 m. S.E. of Port Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Pop. (1907) 4737, including 350 Europeans and 1752 Indians. Nairobi is built on the Athi plains, at the foot of the Kikuyu hills and 5450 ft. above the sea; it commands magnificent views of Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya. It is the headquarters of the Uganda railway, of the military forces in the protectorate, and of the Colonists' Association. It is divided into European, Indian and native quarters. Midway between the European and Indian quarters stands the town hall. The other public buildings include railway works, places of worship (Protestant, Roman Catholic, Mahommedan and Hindu) and schools, an Indian bazaar, a general hospital and waterworks-the water being obtained from springs 13 m. distant. The site of Nairobi was selected as the headquarters of the Uganda railway, and the first buildings were erected in 1899. For some time nearly all its inhabitants were railway officials and Indian coolics engaged in the construction of the line. In 1902 the surrounding highlands were found to be suitable for European settlement, and Nairobi speedily grew in importance; in 1907 the headquarters of the administration were transferred to it from Mombasa. The town is provided with clubs, cricket and athletic grounds and a racecourse. NAIVASHA, the name of a lake, town and province, in British East Africa. The lake, which is roughly circular with a diameter of some 13 m., lies at an altitude of 6135 ft. on the crest of the highest ridge in the eastern rift-valley between the Kikuyu escarpment on the east and the Mau escarpment on the west. It is fed from the north by the rivers Gilgal and Morendat, but has no known outlet. The rivers, which have a minimum discharge of 100 cub. ft. per second, run in deep gullies. The water of the lake is fresh; the shore in many places is lined with papyrus. North and north-west the lake is closed in by the volcanic Buru hills; to the south towers the extinct volcano of Longonot. Hippopotami and otters frequent the lake, and on an island about 1 m. from the shore are large numbers of antelopes and other game. Naivasha was discovered in 1883 by Gustav Adolf Fischer (1848-1886), one of the early explorers of the Tana and Masai regions, and the first to demonstrate the continuance of the rift-valley through equatorial Africa. Fischer was followed later in the same year by Joseph Thomson, the Scottish explorer. The railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza skirts the eastern side of the lake, and on the railway close to the lake is built the town of Naivasha, 6230 ft. above the sea, 391 m. N.W. by rail of Mombasa and 193 m. S.E. by rail of Port Florence on Victoria Nyanza. Naivasha province contains much land suitable for colonization by white men, and large areas were leased to Europeans by the British authorities in 1903 and subsequent years. The East Africa Syndicate acquired a lease of 500 sq. m. in the valley of the Gilgal and surrounding country north of Lake Naivasha. North-west of the lake and along the Molo river the 3rd Lord Delamere obtained a grant of 155 sq. m. NAJARA, ISRAEL BEN MOSES, Hebrew poet, was born in Damascus and wrote in the latter part of the 16th century (15871599). He was inspired by the mystical school, and his poems are marked by their bold, sensuous images, as well as by a depth of feeling unequalled among the Jewish writers of his age. He often adapted his verses to Arabic and Turkish melodies. To tunes which had been associated with light and even ribald themes, Najara wedded words which reveal an intensity of religious emotion which often takes a form indistinguishable from love poetry. Some pietist contemporaries condemned his work for this reason; but this did not prevent many of his poems from attaining wide popularity and from winning their way into the prayer-book. In fact, Najara could claim the authority of the Biblical "Song of Songs" (mystically interpreted) for his combination of the language of human love with the expression of the relationship between God and humanity. He published during his lifetime a collection of his poems, Songs of Israel (Zemiroth Israel), in Safed in 1587; an enlarged edition appeared in Venice (1599-1600). Others of his poems were published at various times, and W. Bacher has described some previously unknown poems of Najara (Revue des études juives, Nos. 116 seq.). (1. A.) NAJIBABAD, a town of British India, in the Bijnor district of the United Provinces, 31 m. S.E. of Hardwar. Pop. (1901) 19,568. It was founded in the middle of the 18th century by a Rohilla chief, and still contains several architectural monuments of Rohilla magnificence. It has a station on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, with a junction for the branch to Kotdwara. There is considerable trade in timber, sugar and grain, and manufactures of metal-ware, shoes, blankets and cotton cloth. NAKHICHEVAN, or NAKHJEVAN, a city of Russian Armenia, in the government of Erivan, 85 m. S.E. of the town of Erivan. It occupies the brow of a spur of the Kara-bagh mountains, 2940 ft. above the sea, and looks out over the valley of the Aras. Pop. (1863) 6251, (1897) 8845. Built and rebuilt again and again, Nakhichevan is full of half-obliterated evidences of former prosperity. The present houses have for the most part been quarried from ancient ruins; of the palace of the princes of Azerbaijan there remains a gateway with a Persian inscription, flanked by two brick towers; and at a little distance stands the so-called Tower of the Khans, a richly decorated twelve-sided structure, 102 ft. in circumference and 75 ft. in height, dating, to judge by the inscription which runs around the cornice, from the 12th century. There are also ruins of a large mosque. Situated on the highroad to Tabriz and Teheran, Nakhichevan has a large transit trade. In the Persian period the city is said to have had 40,000 inhabitants; the population now consists chiefly of Tatars and Armenians, who carry on gardening, make wine and produce silk, salt and millstones. Armenian tradition claims Noah as the founder of Nakhichevan (the Naxuana of Ptolemy), and a mound of earth in the city is still visited by many pilgrims as his grave. Laid waste by the Persians but by the 10th century had recovered its prosperity. În 1064 it in the 4th century, Nakhichevan sank into comparative insignificance, was taken by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, and in the 13th century it fell a prey to the Mongols of Jenghiz Khan. It afterwards suffered frequently during the wars between the Persians, Armenians and Turks, and it finally passed into Russian possession by the peace of Turkman-chai in 1828. NAKHICHEVAN-ON-THE-DON, a town of southern Russia, in the Don Cossacks territory, 6 m. by rail N.E. of the town of Rostov and on the right bank of the Don. Pop. (1900) 30,883. It was founded in 1780 by Armenian immigrants. It soon became a wealthy place, and still is the administrative centre of the "Armenian district," a narrow strip along the banks of the Don, with a population of 27,250. The town has tobacco and wadding factories, tallow-melting works, soap-works, brickworks and tanneries. There is a large trade in cereals and timber. NAKHON SRI TAMMARAT (also known as LAKHON and formerly as LIGORE), a town of southern Siam, in the division of the same name, about 380 m. S. of Bangkok, on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula. It is one of the most ancient cities of Siam, and contains many buildings and ruins of antiquarian interest. The trade consists chiefly of the export of rice. In the bay, a short distance off, ships can lie safely at all seasons. The population (7000) is chiefly Siamese, but there is an ad. mixture of Burmese, the descendants of prisoners of war and of refugees from Tenasserim. The town is the headquarters of a governor under the high commissioner at Singora. It has for long been a centre of the American Presbyterian Mission to Siam. It was once the capital of a feudatory state, the chief of which ruled the greater part of the Malay Peninsula in the name of the kings of Siam and bore the brunt of all the wars with Malacca and other Malay states. It lies, however, north of the limit of Malay expansion, and has never at any time come under Malay rule. With the fall of the Siamese capital of Ayuthia in 1767 it became independent, but returned to its allegiance on the founding of Bangkok. In the 17th century British, Portuguese and Dutch merchants had factories here and carried on an extensive trade. NAKSKOV, a seaport of Denmark, in the amt (county) of Maribo, on a wide bay of the Laalands belt at the west end of the island of Laaland, 31 m. by rail W. of Nykjöbing. Pop. (1901) 8310. The church dates from the beginning of the 15th century. There is a large sugar factory. A great dike, extending S.E. to Rödby (20 m.), protects the coast against inundation, a serious inroad of the sea having occurred in 1872. NAMAQUALAND, a region of south-western Africa, extending along the west coast over 600 m. from Damaraland (22° 43′ S.) on the north to 31° S., and stretching inland 80 to 350 m. It is divided by the lower course of the Orange river into two portions-Little Namaqualand to the south and Great Namaqualand to the north. Little Namaqualand forms part of Cape Colony (q.v.), and Great Namaqualand is the southern portion of German South-West Africa (q.v.). The people of Namaqualand are the purest surviving type of Hottentots, and number some twenty to thirty thousand. NAMASUDRA, the name adopted by the great caste or tribe who inhabit the swamps of Eastern Bengal, India, whom the higher castes are wont to designate by the opprobrious term of Chandal. Their number in 1901 exceeded 2 millions; but if the cognate Pods and also the Mahommedans of the same ethnical stock were to be added, the total would probably reach 11 millions. NAME (O. Eng. nama; cognate forms in Teutonic languages are Dutch naam, Ger. Name, &c., but the word is common to all Indo-European languages; cf. Gr. ovoμa, Lat. nomen, Sans. naman, &c.), the distinguishing appellation by which a person, place, thing or class of persons or things is known. Local Names.-The study of names and of their survival in civilization enables us in some cases to ascertain what peoples inhabited districts now tenanted by races of far different speech. Thus the names of mountains and rivers in many parts of England are Celtic-for example, to take familiar instances, Usk, Esk and Avon. There are also local names (such as Mona, Monmouth, Mynwy and others) which seem to be relics of tribes even older than the Celtic stocks, and "vestiges of non-Aryan people, whom the Celts found in possession both on the Continent and in the British Isles." The later English name is sometimes the mere translation, perhaps unconscious, of the earlier Celtic appellation, often added to the more ancient word. Penpole Point in Somerset is an obvious example of this redoubling of names. The pre-Aryan place-names of the Aegean are much discussed by philologists. Such a name as Corinthos, with all other words in nthos, as hyacinthos, is thought to be pre-Hellenic. The river-names Gade, Ver, Test and many other monosyllabic river-names in the home counties, appear to be neither English nor Celtic, but have been neglected, being known to few but anglers and rustics. As to the meaning and nature of ancient local names, they are as a rule purely descriptive. A river is called by some word which merely signifies "the water "; a hill has a name which means no more than "the point," "the pcak," ," "the castle." Celtic names are often of a more romantic tone, as Ardnamurchan, “ the promontory by the great ocean," an admirable description of the bold and steep headland which breasts the wash of the Atlantic. As a general rule the surviving Celtic names, chiefly in Ireland, Wales and Scotland, all contain some wide meaning of poetic appropriateness. The English names, on the other hand, commonly state some very simple fact, and very frequently do no more than denote property, such and such a town or hamlet," ton "or" ham," is the property of the Billings, Uffings, Tootings, or whoever the early English settlers in the district may have been. The same attachment to the idea of property is exhibited in even the local names of petty fields in English parishes. Occasionally one finds a bit of half-humorous description, as when a sour, starved and weedy plot is named "starvacre "; but more usually fields are known "Thompson's great field," "Smith's small field," "the fouracre," or the like. The name of some farmer or peasant owner or squatter of ancient date survives for centuries, attached to what was once his property. Thus the science of local names has a double historical value. The names indicate the various races (Celtic, Roman and English in Great Britain) who have set in the form of names the seal of their possession on the soil. Again, the meanings of the names illustrate the characters of Elton, Origins of English History, p. 165; Rhys, Lectures on Celtic Philology, pp. 181, 182. as The the various races. The Romans have left names connected with camps (castra, chesters) and military roads; the English have used simple descriptions of the baldest kind, or have exhibited their attachment to the idea of property; the Celtic names (like those which the red men have left in America, or the blacks in Australia) are musical with poetic fancy, and filled with interest in the aspects and the sentiment of nature. British race carries with it the ancient names of an older people into every continent, and titles perhaps originally given to places in the British Isles by men who had not yet learned to polish their weapons of flint may now be found in Australia, America, Africa and the islands of the farthest seas. Local names were originally imposed in a handy local manner. The settler or the group of cave-men styled the neighbouring river "the water," the neighbouring hill "the peak," and these terms often still survive in relics of tongues which can only be construed by the learned. Personal Names.-The history of personal names is longer and more complex, but proceeds from beginnings almost as simple. But in personal names the complexity of human character, and the gradual processes of tangling and disentangling the threads of varied human interest, soon come in, and personal names are not imposed once and for all. Each man in very early societies may have many names, in different characters and at different periods of his life. The oldest personal names which we need examine here are those which indicate, not an individual, but a group, held together by the conscious sense or less conscious sentiment of kindred, or banded together for reasons of convenience. An examination of customs prevalent among the most widely separated races of Asia, Africa, Australia and America proves that groups conceiving themselves to be originally of the same kin are generally styled by the name of some animal or other object (animate or inanimate) from which they claim descent. This object is known as the " totem" (sec TOTEMISM). The groups of supposed kin, however widely scattered in local distribution, are known as wolves, bears, turtles, suns, moons, cockatoos, reeds and what not, according as each group claims descent from this or that stock, and sometimes wears a mark representing this or that animal, plant or natural object. Unmistakable traces of the same habit of naming exist among Semitic and Teutonic races, and even among Greeks and Romans. The names chosen are commonly those of objects which can be easily drawn in a rude yet recognizable way, and easily expressed in the language of gesture. In addition to the totem names (which indicate, in each example, supposed blood-kindred), local aggregates of men received local names. We hear of the "hill-men," " the cave-men," "the bush-men," "the coast-men," the "men of the plain," precisely as in the old Attic divisions of Aktaioi, Pediaioi and so forth. When a tribe comes to recognize its own unity, as a rule it calls itself by some term meaning simply " the men," all other tribes being regarded as barbarous or inferior. Probably other neighbouring tribes also call themselves "the men" in another dialect or language, while the people in the neighbourhood are known by an opprobrious epithet, as Rakshasas among the early Aryan dwellers in India, or Eskimo (raw-eaters) in the far north of the American continent. Tribal names in Australia are often taken from the tribal term for "yes or "no"; cf. Languedoc. Leaving social for personal names, we find that, among most uncivilized races, a name (derived from some incident or natural object) is given at the time of birth by the parents of each newborn infant. Occasionally the name is imposed before the child is born, and the proud parents call themselves father and mother of such an one before the expected infant sees the light. In most cases the name (the earliest name) denotes some phenomenon of nature; thus Dobrizhofer met in the forests a young man styled "Gold flower of day," that is, "Dawn," his father having been named "Sun." Similar names are commonly given by the natives of Australia, while no names are more common among North-American Indians than those derived from sun, moon, cloud and wind. The names of savage persons are not permanent. The name |