Poetae Latini Minores, iii. (1881); Cynegetica: ed. M. Haupt (with | held Nemesius in high esteem, believing his book to be the work Ovid's Halieutica and Grattius Faliscus) 1838, and R. Stern, with of Gregory of Nyssa, with whom he has much in common. Grattius (1832); Italian translation with notes by L. F. Valdrighi (1876). The four eclogues are printed with those of Calpurnius in the editions of H. Schenk! (1885) and E. H. Keene (1887); see L. Cisorio, Studio sulle Egloghe di N. (1895) and Dell' imitazione nelle Egloghe di N. (1896); and M. Haupt, De Carminibus Bucolicis Calpurnii et N. (1853), the chief treatise on the subject.

NEMESIS, the personification of divine justice. This is the only sense in which the word is used in Homer, while Hesiod (Theog. 223) makes Nemesis a goddess, the daughter of Night (some, however, regard the passage as an interpolation); she appears in a still more concrete form in a fragment of the Cypria. The word Nemesis originally meant the distributor (Gr. véμev) of fortune, whether good or bad, in due proportion to each man according to his deserts; then, the resentment caused by any disturbance of this proportion, the sense of justice that could not allow it to pass unpunished. Gruppe and others prefer to connect the name with veueoâv, veμéσíšeobaɩ (“to feel just resentment"). In the tragedians Nemesis appears chiefly as the avenger of crime and the punisher of arrogance, and as such is akin to Ate and the Erinyes. She was sometimes called Adrasteia, probably meaning one from whom there is no escape"; the epithet is specially applied to the Phrygian Cybele, with whom, as with Aphrodite and Artemis, her cult shows certain affinities. She was specially honoured in the district of Rhamnus in Attica, where she was perhaps originally an ancient Artemis, partly confused with Aphrodite. A festival called Nemeseia (by some identified with the Genesia) was held at Athens. Its object was to avert the nemesis of the dead, who were supposed to have the power of punishing the living, if their cult had been in any way neglected (Sophocles, Electra, 792; E. Rohde, Psyche, 1907, i. 236, note 1). At Smyrna there were two divinities of the name, more akin to Aphrodite than to Artemis. The reason for this duality is hard to explain; it is suggested that they represent two aspects of the goddess, the kindly and the malignant, or the goddesses of the old and the new city. Nemesis was also worshipped at Rome by victorious generals, and in imperial times was the patroness of gladiators and venatores (fighters with wild beasts) in the arena and one of the tutelary deities of the drilling-ground (Nemesis campestris). In the 3rd century A.D. there is evidence of the belief in an allpowerful Nemesis-Fortuna. She was worshipped by a society called Nemesiaci. In early times the representations of Nemesis resembled Aphrodite, who herself sometimes bears the epithet Nemesis. Later, as the goddess of proportion and the avenger of crime, she has as attributes a measuring rod, a bridle, a sword and a scourge, and rides in a chariot drawn by griffins.

See C. Walz, De Nemesi Graecorum (Tübingen, 1852); E. Tournier, Némésis (1863), and H. Posnansky, "Nemesis und Adrasteia," in Breslauer philologische Abhandlungen, v. heft 2 (1890), both exhaustive monographs; an essay, "Nemesis, or the Divine Envy," by P. E. More, in The New World (N. Y., Dec. 1899); L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, ii.; and A. Legrand in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquités. For the Roman Nemesis, see G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer (Munich, 1902).

NEMESIUS (A. c. A.D. 390), a Christian philosopher, author of a treatise repi diσews aveрwπov (On Human Nature), was, according to the title of his book, bishop of Emesa (in Syria); of his life nothing further is known, and even his date is uncertain, but internal evidence points to a date after the Apollinarian controversy and before the strife connected with the names of Eutyches and Nestorius, i.e. about the end of the 4th century. His book is an interesting attempt to compile a system of anthropology from the standpoint of the Christian philosophy. Moses and Paul are put side by side with Aristotle and Menander, and there is a clear inclination to Platonic doctrines of preexistence and metempsychosis. In physiological matters he is in advance of Aristotle and Galen, though we can hardly assert-as has sometimes been thought-that he anticipated Harvey's discovery of the circulation of the blood. The treatise is conclusive evidence as to the mutual influence of Christianity and Hellenism in the 4th century. John of Damascus and the schoolmen, including Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, XIX 7

Editions: Antwerp, 1575; Oxford, 1671; Halle, 1802; Migne's Patrol. Gr. vol. 40. Versions: Latin by Alsanus, ed. Holzinger (1887); by Burgundio, ed. Burkhardt (1891-1896). Literature: Bender, Untersuch, über Nemesius (1898). See further Herzog. Hauck's Realencyklop, s.v.

NEMORENSIS LACUS (mod. Nemi), a lake in the Alban
Hills, in an extinct subsidiary crater in the outer ring of the
ancient Alban crater, E. of the Lake of Albano. It is about
3 m. in diameter and some 110 ft. deep; the precipitous slopes
of its basin are over 300 ft. high, and on the side towards the
modern village a good deal more, and are mainly cultivated.
It is now remarkable for its picturesque beauty. In ancient times
it was included in the territory of Aricia, and bore the name
"Mirror of Diana." The worship of Diana here was a very
ancient one, and, as among the Scythians, was originally, so it
was said, celebrated with human sacrifices; even in imperial
times the priest of Diana was a man of low condition, a gladiator
or a fugitive slave, who won his position by slaying his pre-
decessor in fight, having first plucked a mistletoe bough from
the sacred grove, and who, notwithstanding, bore the title of
rex (king). It is curious that in none of the inscriptions that have
been found is the priest of Diana mentioned; and it has indeed
been believed by Morpurgo and Frazer that the rex was not the
priest of Diana at all, but, according to the former, the priest
of Virbius, or, according to the latter, the incarnation of the
spirit of the forest. The temple itself was one of the most splendid
in Latium; Octavian borrowed money from it in 31 B.C., and
it is frequently mentioned by ancient writers. Its remains are
situated a little above the level of the lake, and to the N.E. of
it. They consist of a large platform, the back of which is formed
by a wall of concrete faced with opus reticulatum, with niches,
resting against the cliffs which form the sides of the crater.
Excavations in the 17th and the last quarter of the 19th centuries
(now covered in again), and also in 1905, led to the discovery
of the temple itself, a rectangular edifice, 98 by 52 ft., and of
various inscriptions, a rich frieze in gilt bronze, many statuettes
(ex-votos) from the favissae of the temple in terra-cotta and
bronze, a large number of coins, &c. None of the objects seem
to go back beyond the 4th century B.C. A road descended to
it from the Via Appia from the S.W., passing through the modern
village of Genzano. The lake is drained by a tunnel of about
2 m. long of Roman date. On the W. side of the lake remains
of two ships (really floating palaces moored to the shore) have been
found, one belonging to the time of Caligula (as is indicated by
an inscription on a lead pipe), and measuring 210 ft. long by
66 wide, the other even larger, 233 by 80 ft. The first was
decorated with marbles and mosaics, and with some very fine
bronze beamheads, with heads of wolves and lions having rings
for hawsers in their mouths (and one of a Medusa), now in the
Museo delle Terme at Rome, with remains of the woodwork,
&c., &c. Various attempts have been made to raise the first
ship, from the middle of the 15th century onwards, by which
much harm has been done. The neighbourhood of the lake was
naturally in favour with the Romans as a residence. Caesar
had a villa constructed there, but destroyed again almost at
once, because it did not satisfy him.

V. Malfatti, Notizie degli scavi (1895), 471; (1896), 393: Rivista
See F. Barnabei, Notizie degli scavi (1895), 361, 461; (1896), 188;
(London, 1900); L. Morpurgo in Monumenti dei Lincei, xiii. (1903).
marittima (1896), 379; (1897), 293: J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough
297 sqq.
(T. As.)

NEMOURS, LORDS AND DUKES OF. In the 12th and 13th centuries the lordship of Nemours, in Gâtinais, France, was in possession of the house of Villebeon, a member of which, Gautier, was marshal of France in the middle of the 13th century. The lordship was sold to King Philip III. in 1274 and 1276 by Jean and Philippe de Nemours, and was then made a county and given to Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch in 1364. In 1404 Charles VI. of France gave it to Charles III. of Evreux, king of Navarre, and erected it into a duchy in the peerage of France (duché-pairie). Charles III.'s daughter, Beatrix, brought the

2a

duchy to her husband Jacques de Bourbon, count of La Marche, | to the intervention of the constable de Montmorency. He died and by the marriage of their daughter, Eleanor, to Bernard of at Annecy in July 1595. Armagnac, count of Pardiac, it passed to the house of Armagnac. After being confiscated and restored several times, the duchy reverted to the French crown in 1505, after the extinction of the house of Armagnac-Pardiac. In 1507 it was given by Louis XII. to his nephew, Gaston de Foix, who was killed at Ravenna in 1512. The duchy then returned to the royal domain, and was detached from it successively for Giuliano de Medici and his wife Philiberta of Savoy in 1515, for Louise of Savoy in 1524, and for Philip of Savoy, count of Genevois, in 1528. The descendants of the last-mentioned duke possessed the duchy until its sale to Louis XIV. In 1572 Louis gave it to his brother Philip, duke of Orleans, whose descendants possessed it until the Revolution. The title of duc de Nemours was afterwards given to Louis Charles, son of King Louis Philippe, who is dealt with separately below.

The following are the most noteworthy of the earlier dukes of Nemours.

JAMES OF ARMAGNAC, duke of Nemours (c. 1433-1477), was the son of Bernard d'Armagnac, count of Pardiac, and Eleanor of Bourbon-La Marche. As comte de Castres, he served under Charles VII. in Normandy in 1449 and 1450; and afterwards in Guienne. On the accession of Louis XI. the king loaded him with honours, married him to his god-daughter, Louise of Anjou, and recognized his title to the duchy of Nemours in 1462. Sent by Louis to pacify Roussillon, Nemours felt that he had been insufficiently rewarded for the rapid success of this expedition, and joined the League of the Public Weal in 1465. He subsequently became reconciled with Louis, but soon resumed his intrigues. After twice pardoning him, the king's patience became exhausted, and he besieged the duke's château at Carlat and took him prisoner. Nemours was treated with the utmost rigour, being shut up in a cage; and was finally condemned to death by the parlement and beheaded on the 4th of August 1477. See B. de Mandrot, Jacques d'Armagnac, duc de Nemours (Paris, 1890).

His brother HENRY (1572-1632), called originally marquis de Saint-Sorlin, succeeded him as duke. In 1588 he took the marquisate of Saluzzo from the French for his cousin, the duke of Savoy. The princes of Guise, his half-brothers, induced him to join the League, and in 1591 he was made governor of Dauphiné in the name of that faction. He made his submission to Henry IV. in 1596. After quarrelling with the duke of Savoy he withdrew to Burgundy and joined the Spaniards in their war against Savoy. After peace had been proclaimed on the 14th of November 1616, he retired to the French court. He died in 1632, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Louis, and on the death of the latter in 1641 by his second son, CHARLES AMADEUS (1624-1652), who served in the army of Flanders in 1645, and in the following year commanded the light cavalry at the siege of Courtrai. In 1652 he took part in the war of the Fronde, and fought at Bléncau and at the Faubourg St Antoine, where he was wounded. On the 30th of July of the same year he was killed in a duel by his brother-in-law, François de Vendôme, duke of Beaufort. He had two daughters, Marie Jeanne Baptiste (d. 1724), who married Charles Emmanuel of Savoy in 1665; and Marie Françoise Elisabeth, who married Alphonso VI., king of Portugal, in 1666. His brother Henry (1625-1659), who had been archbishop of Reims, but now withdrew from orders, succeeded to the title. In 1657 he married MARIE D'ORLÉANS-LONGUEVILLE (1625-1707), daughter of Henry II. of Orléans, duke of Longueville. This duchess of Nemours is a famous personage. At an early age she was involved in the first Fronde, which was directed by her father and her stepmother. Anne Geneviève de Bourbon-Condé, the cele brated duchesse de Longueville; and when her husband died in 1659, leaving her childless, the rest of her life was mainly spent in contesting her inheritance with her stepmother. She left some interesting Mémoires, which are published by C. B. Petitot in the Collection complète des mémoires (1819-1829).

NEMOURS, LOUIS CHARLES PHILIPPE RAPHAËL, DUC DE (1814-1896), second son of the duke of Orleans, afterwards King Louis Philippe, was born on the 25th of October 1814. At twelve years of age he was nominated colonel of the first regiment of chasseurs, and in 1830 he became a chevalier of the order of the Saint Esprit and entered the chamber of peers. As early as 1825 his name was mentioned as a possible candidate for the throne of Greece, and in 1831 he was elected king of the Belgians, but international considerations deterred Louis

PHILIP OF SAVOy, duke of Nemours (1490-1533), was a son of Philip, duke of Savoy, and brother of Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I. of France. Originally destined for the priesthood, he was given the bishopric of Geneva at the age of five, but resigned it in 1510, when he was made count of Genevois. He served under Louis XII., with whom he was present at the battle of Agnadello (1509), under the emperor Charles V. in 1520, and finally under his nephew, Francis I. In 1528 Francis gave him the duchy of Nemours and married him to Charlotte of Orléans-Philippe from accepting the honour for his son. In February 1831 Longueville. He died on the 25th of November 1533.

His son, JAMES (1531-1585), became duke of Nemours in 1533. He distinguished himself at the sieges of Lens and Metz (1552-1553), at the battle of Renty (1554) and in the campaign of Piedmont (1555). He was a supporter of the Guises, and had to retire for some time into Savoy in consequence of a plot. On his return to France he fought the Huguenots, and signalized himself by his successes in Dauphiné and Lyonnais. In 1567 he induced the court to return from Meaux to Paris, took part in the battle of Saint Denis, protested against the peace of Longjumeau, and repulsed the invasion of Wolfgang, count palatine of Zweibrücken. He devoted his last years to letters and art, and died at Annecy on the 15th of June 1585.

By his wife Anne of Este, the widow of Francis, duke of Guise, the duke left a son, CHARLES EMMANUEL (1567-1595), who in his youth was called prince of Genevois. Involved in political intrigues by his relationship with the Guises, he was imprisoned after the assassination of Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother the cardinal of Lorraine, in 1588, but contrived to escape. He fought at Ivry and Arques, and was governor of Paris when it was besieged by Henry IV. After quarrelling with his half-brother Charles of Lorraine, duke of Mayenne, he withdrew to his government of Lyonnais, where he endeavoured to make himself independent. He was imprisoned, however, in the château of Pierre-Encise by the archbishop of Lyons. After his escape he attacked Lyons, but was defeated owing

he accompanied the French army which entered Belgium to support the new kingdom against Holland, and took part in the siege of Antwerp. He accompanied the Algerian expedition against the town of Constantine in the autumn of 1836, and in a second expedition (1837) he was entrusted with the command of a brigade and with the direction of the siege operations before Constantine. General Damrémont was killed by his side on the 12th of October, and the place was taken by assault on the 13th. He sailed a third time for Algeria in 1841, and served under General Bugeaud, taking part in the expedition to revictual Medea on the 29th of April, and in sharp fighting near Miliana on the 3rd to 5th of May. In the expedition against the fortified town of Takdempt he commanded the 1st infantry division. On his return to France he became commandant of the camp of Compiègne. He had been employed on missions of courtesy to England in 1835, in 1838 and in 1845, and to Berlin and Vienna in 1836. The occasion of his marriage in 1840 with Victoria, daughter of Duke Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, was marked by a check to Louis Philippe's government in the form of a refusal to bestow the marriage dowry proposed by Thiers in the chamber of deputies. The death of his elder brother, Ferdinand, duke of Orleans, in 1842 gave him a position of greater importance as the natural regent in the case of the accession of his nephew, the young count of Paris. His reserve and dislike of public functions, with a certain haughtiness of manner, however, made him unpopular. On the outbreak of the revolution of

1848 he held the Tuileries long enough to cover the king's retreat, | policy of the Dahis, instead of preventing, did actually and but refrained from initiating active measures against the mob. immediately provoke a general insurrection of the Servians He followed his sister-in-law, the duchess of Orléans, and her two against the Turks. Prota Mateya became the deputy-commander sons to the chamber of deputies, but was separated from them of the insurgents of the Valyevo district (1804), but did not by the rioters, and only escaped finally by disguising himself hold the post for long, as Karageorge sent him in 1805 on a secret in the uniform of a national guard. He embarked for England, mission to St Petersburg, and afterwards employed him almost where he settled with his parents at Claremont. His chief aim constantly as Servia's diplomatic envoy to Russia, Austria, during his exile, especially after his father's death, was a re- Bucharest and Constantinople. After the fall of Karageorge conciliation between the two branches of the house of Bourbon, (1813), the new leader of the Servians, Milosh Obrenovich, sent as indispensable to the re-establishment of the French monarchy Prota Mateya as representative of Servia to the Congress of in any form. These wishes were frustrated on the one hand Vienna (1814-1815), where he pleaded the Servian cause indeby the attitude of the comte de Chambord, and on the other fatigably. During that mission he often saw Lord Castlereagh, by the determination of the duchess of Orléans to maintain the and for the first time the Servian national interests were brought pretensions of the count of Paris. Nemours was prepared to to the knowledge of British statesmen. go further than the other princes of his family in accepting the principles of the legitimists, but lengthy negotiations ended in 1857 with a letter, written by Nemours, as he subsequently explained, at the dictation of his brother, François, prince de Joinville, in which he insisted that Chambord should express his adherence to the tricolour flag and to the principles of constitutional government. In 1871 the Qrleans princes renewed their professions of allegiance to the senior branch of their house, but they were not consulted when the count of Chambord came to Paris in 1873, and their political differences remained until his death in 1883.

Nemours had lived at Bushey House after the death of Queen Marie Amélie in 1866. In 1871 the exile imposed on the French princes was withdrawn, but he only transferred his establishment to Paris after their disabilities were also removed. In March 1872 he was restored to his rank in the army as general of division, and placed in the first section of the general staff. After his retirement from the active list he continued to act as president of the Red Cross Society until 1881, when new decrees against the princes of the blood led to his withdrawal from Parisian society. During the presidency of Marshal MacMahon, he had appeared from time to time at the Élysée. He died at Versailles on the 26th of June 1896, the duchess having died at Claremont on the roth of November 1857. Their children were Louis Philippe Marie Ferdinand Gaston, comte d'Eu (b. 1842), who married Isabella, eldest daughter of Don Pedro II. of Brazil; Ferdinand Philippe Marie, duc d'Alençon (b. 1844), who married Sophie of Bavaria (1847-1897), sister of the empress Elizabeth of Austria; Margaret (1846-1893), who married Prince Ladislas Czartoryski; and Blanche (b. 1857).

See R. Bazin, Le Duc de Nemours (1907); Paul Thureau-Dangin, Histoire de la monarchie de juillet (4 vols., 1884, &c.).

NEMOURS, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine-et-Marne, on the Loing and its canal, 26 m. S. of Melun, on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4814. The church, which dates mainly from the 16th century, has a handsome wooden spire, and there is a feudal castle. A statue of the mathematician Bézout (d. 1783), a native of the town, was erected in 1885. In the vicinity is a group of fine sandstone rocks, and sand is extensively quarried: Nemours is supposed to derive its name from the woods (nemora) in the midst of which it formerly stood, and discoveries of Gallo-Roman remains indicate its early origin. It was captured by the English in 1420, but derives its historical importance rather from the lordship (afterwards duchy) to which it gave its name. In 1585 a treaty revoking previous concessions to the Protestants was concluded at Nemours between Catherine de Medici and the Guises.

NENADOVICH, MATEYA (1777-1854), Servian patriot, was born in 1777. He is generally called Prota Mateya, since as a boy of sixteen he was made a priest, and a few years later became archpriest (Prota) of Valyevo. His father, Alexa Nenadovich, Knez (chief magistrate) of the district of Valyevo, was one of the most popular and respected public men among the Servians at the beginning of the 19th century. When the four leaders of the Janissaries of the Belgrade Pashalic (the so-called Dahis) thought that the only way to prevent a general rising of the Servians was to intimidate them by murdering all their principal men, Alexa Nenadovich was one of the first victims. The

Prota Mateya's memoirs are the most valuable authority for the history of the first and second Servian insurrections against the Turks. The best edition of the Memoari Proje Mateye Nenadovicha was published by the Servian Literary Association in Belgrade in 1893.

NENAGH, a market town of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, finely situated in a rich though hilly country near the river Nenagh, 96 m. S.W. from Dublin by the Ballybrophy and Limerick branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4704. Of the old castle, called Nenagh Round, dating from the time of King John, there still exists the circular donjon or keep. There are no remains of the hospital founded in 1200 for Austin canons, nor of the Franciscan friary, founded in the reign of Henry III. and one of the richest religious houses in Ireland. The town is governed by an urban district council. It was one of the ancient manors of the Butlers, who received for it the grant of a fair from Henry VIII. In 1550 the town and friary were burned by O'Carroll. In 164r the town was taken by Owen Roe O'Neill, but shortly afterwards it was recaptured by Lord Inchiquin. It surrendered to Ireton in 1651, and was burned by Sarsfield in 1688.

NENNIUS (A. 796), a Welsh writer to whom we owe the Historia Brilonum, lived and wrote in Brecknock or Radnor. His work is known to us through thirty manuscripts; but the earliest of these cannot be dated much earlier than the year 1000; and all are defaced by interpolations which give to the work so confused a character that critics were long disposed to treat it as an unskilful forgery. A new turn was given to the controversy by Heinrich Zimmer, who, in his Nennius vindicatus (1893), traced the history of the work and, by a comparison of the manuscripts with the 11th-century translation of the Irish scholar, Gilla Coemgim (d. 1072), succeeded in stripping off the later accretions from the original nucleus of the Historia. Zimmer follows previous critics in rejecting the Prologus maior (§§ 1, 2), the Capitula, or table of contents, and part of the Mirabilia which form the concluding section. But he proves that Nennius should be regarded as the compiler of the Historia proper (§§ 7-65). Zimmer's conclusions are of more interest to literary critics than to historians. The only part of the Historia which deserves to be treated as a historical document is the section known as the Genealogiae Saxonum (§§ 57-65). This is merely a recension of a work which was composed about 679 by a Briton of Strathclyde. The author's name is unknown; but he is, after Gildas, our earliest authority for the facts of the English conquest of England. Nennius himself gives us the oldest legends relating to the victories of King Arthur; the value of the Historia from this point of view is admitted by the severest critics. The chief authorities whom Nennius followed were Gildas' De excidio Britonum, Eusebius, the Vita Patricii of Murichu Maccu Mach theni, the Collectanea of Tircchan, the Liber occupationis (an Irish work on the settlement of Ireland), the Liber de sex actatibus mundi, the chronicle of Prosper of Aquitaine, the Liber beati Germani. The sources from which he derived his notices of King Arthur (§ 56) have not been determined.

See J. Stevenson's edition of the Historia Britonum (English Hist. Soc., 1838), based on a careful study of the MSS.; A. de la Borderie, L'Historia Britonum (Paris and London, 1883), which summarizes the older negative criticism; H. Zimmer. Nennius vindicatus (Berlin, 1893); T. Mommsen in Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde, xix. 283. (H. W. C. D.)

NEO-CAESAREA, SYNOD OF, a synod held shortly after that | is found, except gold, which seems to have been sometimes used of Ancyra, probably about 314 or 315 (although Hefele inclines for ornaments. Agriculture, pottery, weaving, the domesticato put it somewhat later). Its principal work was the adoption tion of animals, the burying of the dead in dolmens, and the of fifteen disciplinary canons, which were subsequently accepted rearing of megalithic monuments are the typical developments as ecumenical by the Council of Chalcedon, 451, and of which the of man during this stage. most important are the following: i. degrading priests who marry after ordination; vii. forbidding a priest to be present at the second marriage of any one; viii. refusing ordination to the husband of an adulteress; xi. fixing thirty years as the age below which one might not be ordained (because Christ began His public ministry at the age of thirty); xiii. according to city priests the precedence over country priests; xiv. permitting Chorepiscopi to celebrate the sacraments; xv. requiring that there be seven deacons in every city.

on the knowledge they repudiated; but the masses were trained | in the authority of a sound tradition. Such authority must be to a superstition with which the Christian church, as the executor superhuman, otherwise it can have no claim on our respect; it of Neoplatonism, had to reckon and contend. By a fortunate must, therefore, be divine. The highest sphere of knowledgecoincidence, at the very moment when this bankruptcy of the the supra-rational-as well as the very possibility of knowledge, old culture must have become apparent, the stage of history must depend on divine communications-that is, on revelations. was occupied by barbaric peoples. This has obscured the fact In short, philosophy as represented by Neoplatonism, its sole that the inner history of antiquity, ending as it did in despair interest being a religious interest, and its highest object the supraof this world, must in any event have seen a recurrence of rational, must be a philosophy of revelation. barbarism. The present world was a thing that men would neither enjoy nor master nor study. A new world was discovered, for the sake of which everything else was abandoned; to make sure of that world insight and intelligence were freely sacrificed; and, in the light that streamed from bevond, the absurdities of the present became wisdom, and wisdom became foolishness.