BIBLIOGRAPHY.-C. H. Hitchcock, Geology of New Hampshire (Concord, 1874-1878); New Hampshire Annual Reports (1871), especially those of the Forestry Commission, Fish and Game Commission, Board of Agriculture and Board of Charities and Correc tion; J. F. Colby, Manual of the Constitution of the State of New Hampshire (Concord, 1902), containing an historical sketch of the constitutions of the state; F. A. Ward, "The New Hampshire Constitution," in The New England Magazine, N.S., vol. 29 (September 1903); Laws of New Hampshire, including Public and Private Acts and Resolves and the Royal Commissions and Instructions, with Historical and Descriptive Notes, edited by A. S. Batchellor (Manchester, 1904): Captain John Mason, the Founder of New Hampshire, including his tract on Newfoundland, the American charters in which he was a grantee, with letters and other historical documents, together with a memoir by C. W Tuttle (Boston,_1887), edited by J. W. Deane; New Hampshire Provincial Papers; documents and records relating to the province from the earliest period of its settlement (Concord, 1867-1873); J. Belknap The History of New Hampshire (Philadelphia, 1784); Life of William Plumer (Boston, 1857), by his son William Plumer, Jr.; G. Barstow, The History of New Hampshire from its discovery, in 1614, to the passage of the toleration act, in 1819 (New York, 1853); E. A. Charlton, New Hampshire as it is (Claremont, 1857); J. N. McClintock, History of New Hampshire (Boston, 1889); F. B. Sanborn, New Hampshire, an Epitome of Popular Government (Boston, 1904) in the "American Commonwealths Series "; and W. H. Fry, New Hampshire as a Royal Province (New York, 1908). NEW HARMONY, a village in Posey county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the Wabash river, about 22 m. N.W. of Evansville. Pop. (1900) 1341; (1910) 1229. It is served by the Illinois Central railway, and has regular steamboat connexion with the river cities. New Harmony had its beginning in 1814-1815, when it became the home of a communistic religious sect known variously as the Harmonists, Harmonites and Rappites, founded in Germany towards the end of the 18th century by George Rapp (1757-1847), a native of Iptingen in Württemberg. Rapp and his followers, who sought to form a community after the manner of the primitive Christian Church, were persecuted in Germany, and in 1803-1804 emigrated to Butler county, Pennsylvania. There they established in 1805 a community known as Harmony, consisting of some 600 persons, who held their property in common and in 1807 adopted celibacy. In 1814 Rapp sold most of his Pennsylvania land and bought about 24,735 acres (in the next ten years more than 14,000 acres in addition) on the Wabash river in Indiana Territory. In 18141815 Rapp and a thousand of his followers settled on the Indiana tract, their headquarters being established at New Harmony, or Harmonic as they called it. The settlers, mostly Germans, devoted themselves to agriculture, weaving and leather-working so industriously that they prospered from the start. Rapp, however, in 1825 disposed of his lands and property to Robert Owen, having returned with part of his followers to Pennsyl vania and founded a new community known as Economy (q.v.), in Beaver county, where he died in 1847. Intent on founding a socialistic community, Owen went to the United States in 1824, and purchased Rapp's lands and live stock for $182,000. He interested several well-known scientists in his settlement, and with them came to New Harmony in the spring of 1826. Within six months the community numbered over 1000. Among its most notable members were Robert Owen's sons, Robert Dale Owen (1801-1877), a political leader and diplomat; David Dale Owen (1807-1860) and Richard Owen (1810-1890), both geologists of note; William MaClure (1763-1840), the founder of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia; Thomas Say (1787-1834)," the father of American Zoology "; Charles Lesueur, a scientist and antiquarian; and Gerard Troost (1776-1850), a well-known geologist. The greater part of the settlers, however, were impractical theorists or adventurers. Constitution after constitution was adopted, and with the adoption of each new constitution and with each new religious discussion a group would secede and form a separate community--in 1828 there were ten-the best known and most successful being Macluria (like the others, occupying a part of Owen's land), named after William MaClure, who became its directing power. The whole organization broke up in 1827, and Owen left New Harmony in 1828. New Harmony has a Working Men's Institute Public Library, founded in 1838 by William MaClure, 499 and having in 1907 18,000 volumes; the collection is rich in evening paper. At New Haven also are published several works dealing with socialism. See "The Harmony Society " in German-American Annals (Philadelphia), vol. 2 (new series), for January 1904; G. B. Lock wood and C. A. Prosser, The New Harmony Movement (New York, 1907); Meredith Nicholson, The Hoosiers (New York, 1901); Morris Hillquit, History of Socialism in the United States (New York, 1903); and Frank Podmore, Robert Owen (London, 1906). NEW HAVEN, the largest city of Connecticut, U.S.A., the county-seat of New Haven and the seat of Yale University. It is co-extensive with the township of New Haven (though there is both a township and a city government), and lies in the south-western part of the state, about 4 m. from Long Island Sound, at the head of New Haven Bay, into which empty three small streams, the Quinnipiac, the Mill and the West rivers. Pop. (1890) 81,298; (1900) 108,027, of whom 30,802 were foreign-born, including 10,491 Irish, 5262 Italians, 4743 Germans, 3193 Russians and 1376 Swedes; (1910 census) 133,605. Land area (1906) 17.91 sq. m., of which more than one-half was annexed since 1900. New Haven is served by the main line and five branches of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, by three inter-urban electric lines and by two steamship lines connecting with New York. The city is built on a level, sandy plain, in the rear of which is a line of hills terminating in two spurs, East Rock and West Rock, respectively 360 and 400 ft. high and 2 m. and 24 m. distant from the Green. On East Rock is a monument to the Connecticut soldiers who fell in the War of Independence, the War of 1812, the Mexican War and the Civil War; on the West Rock is a cave, "Judges' Cave," in which the regicides William Goffe and Edward Whalley are said to have concealed themselves when sought for by royal officers in 1661. The central and older portion of the city is laid out in squares surrounding a public Green of 16 acres, which was in former days the centre of religious and social life. New Haven is popularly known as the "City of Elms," because of the number of these trees. Besides the Green there are 12 other parks, ranging from 6 to 300 acres in area, four of them being on the water front, along the harbour. On the west side of the city is Edgewood Park (120 acres); on the north is Beaver Pond Park (100 acres); and East and West Rocks, mentioned above, have been made into suburban parks. Among the public buildings and places of interest are the three churches on the Green, built in 1814; Center Church (Congregational), in the rear of which is the grave of John Dixwell (1608-1689), one of the regicides; United (formerly known as North) Church (Congregational), and Trinity Church, which belongs to one of the oldest Protestant Episcopal congregations in Connecticut. On the north-western side of the Green are the buildings of Yale University (q.v.); the "college" campus is the square enclosed by College, Chapel, High and Elm streets, with Battell Chapel at its eastern corner, Farnam, Lawrence, Phelps, Welch and Osborn halls on its south-eastern side, Vanderbilt Hall, Connecticut (or South Middle) Hall, the oldest of the Yale buildings (1750), and the Art School on the southern side, the Library, Dwight Hall and Alumni Hall on the northwestern and Durfee Hall on the northern side; farther north of the Green are the Divinity School, the University Campus, on which are the Bicentennial Buildings and Memorial Hall, and, lying between Grove Street and Trumbull Street and Prospect Street and Hillhouse Avenue, the buildings of the Sheffield Scientific School. In the vicinity is the Grove Street Cemetery, in which are the graves of many famous Americans. Besides the University Library, there are a Public Library (1887), containing about 80,000 vols., the library of the Young Men's Institute (1826) and the collection of the New Haven Colony Historical Society. The city contains a State Normal School and a number of hospitals and charitable institutions. Among the newspapers of New Haven are the Morning Journal and Courier (1832, Republican), whose weekly edition, the Connecticut Herald and Weekly Journal, was established as the New Haven Journal in 1766; the Palladium (Republican; daily, 1840; weekly, 1828); the Evening Register (Independent; daily, 1840; weekly, 1812); and the Union (1873), a Democratic weekly English, German and Italian papers, and a number of Periodicals, including the American Journal of Science (1818), the Yale Law Journal (1890) and the Yale Review (1892), a quarterly. In 1900 New Haven was the most important manufacturing centre in Connecticut, and in 1905 it was second only to Bridgeport in the value of its factory product. In 1905 its establishments numbered 490. The principal manufactures are hardware, foundry and machine shop products, ammunition and fire-arms (the Winchester Company), carriages and wagons, malt liquors, paper boxes and corsets. Meat packing is also an important industry. In 1905 the total capital invested in manufacturing was $31,412,715 and the total product $39,666,118 (a gain of 13.7% since 1900). Commercially, New Haven is primarily a distributing point for the Atlantic seaboard, but the city is a port of entry, and foreign commerce (almost exclusively importing) is carried on to some extent, the imports in 1909 being valued at $404,805. In 1908 the assessed valuation of real and personal property was $119,592,508, the net debt was $3,854,498 and the rate of taxation was 14.75 mills on the dollar. Under a charter of 1899, as amended afterwards, the city government, which has almost entirely superseded the town government, is in the hands of a mayor, who holds office for two years and appoints most of the administrative officers, except a board of aldermen (of whom each has a two-year term, six are chosen from the city at large and the others one each from each ward, the even-numbered wards electing their representatives one year and the odd-numbered the next), a city clerk, controller, sheriff, treasurer and tax collector, all chosen by popular vote, and an assistant clerk, appointed by the board of aldermen. " The first settlement in New Haven (called Quinnipiac, its Indian name, until 1640) was made in the autumn of 1637 by a party of explorers in search of a site for colonization for a band of Puritans, led by Theophilus Eaton and the Rev. John Davenport, who had arrived at Boston, Massachusetts, from England in July 1637. In the following spring a permanent settlement was made. It was governed under a plantation covenant until the 4th of June 1639, when, at a general meeting, the "free planters" adopted the fundamental principles of a new government. They agreed that the Scriptures should be their guide in civil affairs, and that only approved church members should be admitted to the body politic; twelve men were appointed to choose seven men (“seven pillars") who should found the church and admit to its original membership such planters as they thought properly qualified. This having been done, the first General Court of which there is record met on the 25th of October. At this court the members of the new church, together with six members of other approved churches, were admitted to citizenship; a magistrate, four assistants, a secretary and a constable were chosen as the civil officers; annual elections and an annual session of the General Court in the last week of October were agreed upon; English statute and common law were expressly excluded; and the "worde of God was adopted as the onely rule to be attended unto in ordering the affayres of government in this plantation." As thus founded, New Haven was town and colony combined. In 1643-1644 the colony was expanded into the New Haven Jurisdiction, embracing the towns of New Haven, Guilford, Milford, Stamford and Branford in Connecticut, and, on Long Island, Southold; but this "Jurisdiction" was dissolved in 1664, and all these towns (except Southold) passed under the jurisdiction of Connecticut, according to the Connecticut charter of 1662. The government of the Jurisdiction was of the strictest Puritan type, and although the forty-five "blue laws" which the Rev. Samuel Peters, in his General History of Connecticut, ascribed to New Haven were much confused with the laws of the other New England colonies and some were mere inventions, yet many of them, and others equally "blue," were actually in operation as enactments of as court decisions in New Haven. Among those in the Peters's list which are wholly or substantially | a daily service of fast steamers to Dieppe in connexion with the true are the following: "The judges shall determine controversies Chemin de fer de l'Ouest. The tidal harbour, which is owned without a jury "; Married persons must live together or be imprisoned"; A wife shall be good evidence against her husband"; "No minister shall keep school"; "The selectmen, on finding children ignorant, may take them away from their parents and put them into better hands, at the expense of their parents.' Among those in the same list which are wholly or in part spurious are: No woman shall kiss her child on the Sabbath or fasting day," and "No one shall travel, cook victuals, make beds, sweep house, cut hair or shave on the Sabbath day." One of the most important events in the history of New Haven was the removal hither in October 1716 from Saybrook of the Collegiate School of Connecticut, which developed into Yale University. The period of greatest material prosperity of New Haven in the colonial period began about 1750, when a thriving commerce with other American ports and the West Indies developed. As a port it was notorious for its smuggling and illicit trade. New Haven also had extensive shipbuilding interests. All attempts to enforce the British commercial regulations were ineffectual. On the 22nd of February 1763 a town meeting resolved to encourage colonial manufactures and to refrain from importing from England hats, clothing, leather, gold and silver lace, buttons, cheese, liquors, &c. Two years later Jared Ingersoll (1722-1781), who had been sent to England to protest against the Stamp Act, but had accepted the office of Stamp Distributor on the advice of Benjamin Franklin, was forced to resign his office. In 1770 most of the merchants agreed not to import goods from England and transferred their trade with New York City, where Loyalist influence was strong, to Boston and Philadelphia. When news of the embargo of the port at Boston arrived at New Haven, a Committee of Correspondence was at once formed; and in the War of Independence the people enthusiastically supported the American cause. On the 5th of July 1779 the place was invaded by a British force under General William Tryon, who intended to burn the town, but met so strong a resistance that he withdrew before the next day. New Haven's commerce suffered severely during the war, but by the close of the first decade of the 19th century it had regained its former importance. When the War of 1812 opened there were fully 600 seamen in the city, practically all of whom were engaged in privateering or in the regular naval service of the United States. Among them was Captain Isaac Hull. In 1815 the Fulton, the first steamboat on Long Island Sound, made its first trip from New York to New Haven. The second quarter of the 19th century was the period of development of railways and manufactures. The period since the Civil War has been marked by a diversification of industries. To that conflict New Haven contributed approximately $30,000,000, and 3000 men, 500 of whom were killed. From 1701 until 1873 New Haven was the joint capital (with Hartford) of Connecticut. New Haven was incorporated as a city in 1784; new charters were secured from the General Assembly of the state in 1869, 1881 and 1899. Fair Haven was annexed to New Haven in 1897. See Leonard Bacon, Thirteen Historical Discourses (New Haven, 1839); J. W. Barber, History and Antiquities of New Haven (3rd ed., New Haven, 1870); C. H. Levermore, Town and City Government of New Haven, and The Republic of New Haven (Baltimore, 1886); E. S. Bartlett, Historical Sketches of New Haven (New Haven, 1897); Edward E. Atwater, History of the Colony of New Haven to its Absorption into Connecticut (New Haven, 1881); H. T. Blake, Chronicles of New Haven Green (New Haven, 1898); Records of the Colony of New Haven 1638-1665 (2 vols., Hartford, 1857-1858), edited by C. H. Hoadly; and the Papers and other publications (1865 sqq.) of New Haven Colony Historical Society. NEWHAVEN, a seaport in the Eastbourne parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 56 m. S. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway, on the English Channel at the mouth of the Ouse. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6772. The church of St Michael has a Norman square embattled tower surmounted by a spire, and an apsidal chancel. The port is protected by fortifications. A harbour was first granted to Newhaven in 1713, and during the early part of the 18th century it possessed a large shipping trade. This afterwards declined, but it is now one of the principal points of communication between England and France, the railway company maintaining by a company, is enclosed by two piers and a breakwater, the area being about 30 acres, and the quayage 1400 yds. The roadstead is one of the finest on the coast of England. With France there is a large traffic in wines, spirits, silk, fruit, vegetables and general provisions. The coasting trade consists chiefly of imports of coal and provisions, the exports being principally timber for shipbuilding and flint for the Staffordshire potteries. Some shipbuilding is carried on. NEW HEBRIDES, a chain of islands in the western Pacific Ocean, between 166° and 171° E., and 13° and 21° S., included in Melanesia, and under the joint influence of Great Britain and France. (For map, see PACIFIC OCEAN.) From New Caledonia to the S.W. they are separated by a deep channel; but a comparatively shallow sea indicates their physical connexion with the Santa Cruz group (q.v.) to the N. The chain lies S.E. and N.W., but the main islands are arranged somewhat in the form of the letter Y. The south-easternmost island is Aneiteum; N.W. from this the main islands are Tanna or Aipere, Eromanga, Efaté,' the Shepherd Islands and Api or Epi. At this point the arms of the Y divide, the western comprising the large islands of Malekula or Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo, the eastern consisting of Ambrym, Arag and Maiwo or Aurora, with Aoba or Leper Island between the two arms. Espiritu Santo, the largest island, has an area of 875 sq. m. Irregularly disposed to the N. of the Y are the lesser islands composing the Banks groupGaua, Vanua Lava, Mota, Valua, &c., and the Torres Islands. With their rugged outline and rich vegetation, the islands as seen from the sea are very beautiful. Excepting the small Torres group, which are low-lying and perched on reefs, but without lagoons, all the islands are of volcanic, not coral, formation, the larger ones lying on both sides of the line of volcanic activity. The coasts are almost free from reefs and the shores rise abruptly from deep water. Old coral is sometimes found elevated to a considerable height. The islands are formed chiefly of basalt and recent eruptive material; earthquakes and submarine eruptions are not infrequent; and some of the islands themselves have active craters. All have considerable elevations, the loftiest being the isolated cone of Lopevi, near the junction of the arms of the Y; its height is 4714 ft. The volcanic soil is very rich. Numerous clear streams water the islands, but some debouch upon flat ground towards the sea, and form unhealthy marshes there. Copper, iron and nickel are the most important minerals known in the group, and sulphur is of some commercial importance. The climate is generally hot and damp, but there is a season (November to April) which is specially distinguished, as such, and is somewhat unhealthy. The trees-Casuarina, candle nut (Aleurites triloba), kauri pine (or Tanna), various species of Ficus, Myrtaceae and many others-are magnificent; the coco-nut is not confined to the coast, but grows high up the valleys on the hill-sides. Sandal-wood is also found. Besides the breadfruit, sago-palm, banana, sugar, yam, taro, arrowroot and several forest fruits, the orange, pine-apple and other imported species flourish; and European vegetables are exported to Sydney. Land mammals are scarce; they include bats, rats and pigs which have run wild. There are some lizards and turtles, birds include pigeons, parrots, ducks and swallows; locusts, grasshoppers, butterflies and hornets are numerous, and the sea abounds in fish, which, however, are generally inferior as food, and in some cases poisonous. The native population is estimated at 50,000; in 1904 the British population was 212, the French 401. The island of Efaté contains the seat of the joint government, Vila or Port Vila (formerly Franceville), and the majority of the French population. There are several British and French trading companies, and a considerable area is cleared and worked by settlers. The chief exports are copra, coffee, maize, bananas, timber, &c. 'Efaté, Vaté, Faté, Efat or Sandwich island. citizens. The claim of other powers to share the joint influence was excluded by the provision that their subjects resident on the islands must be under either British or French jurisdiction. A British and a French high commissioner were appointed, each assisted by a resident commissioner; provision was made for two police forces of equal strength, and the joint naval commission of 1887 was retained for the purpose of keeping order. The high commissioners were given authority over the native chiefs. A joint court was established, consisting of two judges, appointed respectively by Great Britain and France, and a third, to be president, and not a British subject or French citizen, appointed by the king of Spain. Its jurisdiction covers civil cases (including commercial suits and those respecting landed property), native offences or crimes against non-natives, and all offences against the provisions of the convention. The sale of arms and intoxicants to natives is forbidden; and the vision was made for community of interests in regard to public convention regulates the recruitment of native labour. Proworks, finance and the official use of the English and French languages. The creation of municipalities on the application of groups of not less than thirty non-native residents was provided for, municipal votes being given to both sexes. The convention provided against the establishment of a penal settlement and the erection of fortifications. The natives of the New Hebrides are Melanesians of mixed blood, I each power should retain jurisdiction over its own subjects or and vary much in different islands. On Efaté and some others Polynesian immigration has produced a taller, fairer and less savage people. In some parts, as on Aoba, isolated Polynesian communities exist. But the general type is Melanesian: black skin, woolly hair, low, receding forehead, broad face, flat nose and thick lips. The natives decorate themselves with nose-rings and ear-rings and bracelets of shells. The men are constantly fighting; their weapons are bows and poisoned arrows, often beautifully designed, clubs of elaborate patterns and spears. Their houses are either round huts, or rectangular with pitched roofs resting on three parallel rows of posts. The villages are scrupulously clean and neat, ornamented with flowering shrubs, crotons and dracaenas, and are often fortified with stone walls. In character the New Hebrideans are ferocious and treacherous, though most of their unhospitality and savagery is to be traced to the misconduct and cruelty of traders and labour agents. The women occupy a degraded position, and in some islands widows are buried alive with the bodies of their husbands. There is a great belief in sorceries and omens; but prayer and offerings (usually of shell money) are addressed mainly to the spirits of the (recently) dead, and there is another class of spirits, called Vui, who are appealed to when incorporate in certain stones or animals; of one of two such the divinity is recognized generally. By the villages a space shadowed by a great banyan tree is often set apart for dances and public meetings. A certain sanctity attaches also sometimes to the Casuarina and the Cycas. An important institution is the club-house, in which there are various grades, whereon a man's rank and influence mainly depend, his grade being recognized even if he goes to another island where his language is unintelligible. In like manner a division into two great exogamous groups prevails, at all events throughout the northern islands. It would therefore seem that the present diversity of languages in the group must be of relatively recent origin. These languages or dialects are numerous, and mutually unintelligible, but alike as to grammatical construction, and belonging to the Melanesian class. This convention was bitterly criticized in Australia on the ground that many of the provisions which nominally established equality between British and French would operate in practice to the advantage of the French; and there was no little dissatisfaction on the ground that the Australian government was neither represented at the preliminary conference, nor fully consulted during the negotiations. See Parliamentary Papers, France, No. 1 (1888 and 1906); and "Correspondence relating to the Convention..." (Cd. 3288), (1907). NEW IBERIA, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Iberia parish, on the Bayou Teche, in the southern part of the state, about 125 m. W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 3447; (1900) 6815 (3309 negroes); (1910) 7499. It is served by the Southern Pacific, the Franklin and Abbeville, and the New Iberia & Northern railways. Lumber, sugar, cotton and rice are produced in the neighbourhood. At the village of Avery Island, about 10 m. S.E., there are deposits of rock salt. The municipality owns and operates the waterworks and the electric lighting plant. New Iberia was laid out in 1835 and was chartered as a city in 1839. History. The Portuguese Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, sighting Espiritu Santo in 1606, thought he had discovered the great southern continent then believed to exist, and named it Australia del Espiritu Santo. Louis de Bougainville visited the islands in 1768, and Captain Cook, who gave them the name they bear, in 1774. The subsequent visits of several explorers, the exploitation of the sandal-wood and other products by traders and the arrival of missionaries helped to open up the islands and to give them a certain commercial importance by the middle of the 19th century. Trade was mainly with New Caledonia, and France was thus indicated as the dominant power in the New Hebrides; even British planters pressed France to annex the islands in 1876, but in the following year some of the missionaries urged the same course on England. In 1878 the islands were declared neutral by Great Britain and France. The presence of British and French settlers under independent authority led to unsatisfactory administration, especially in regard to the settle- NEW JERSEY, one of the Middle Atlantic states of the ment of civil actions and jurisdiction over the native population. | American Union, lying between 41° 21′ 22-6" and 38° 55′ 40′′ As to the establishment of commercial supremacy, French | N. lat., and 75° 35′ and 73° 53′ 39′′ W. long. It is bounded, N., interests clashed with Australian, and in 1882 M. John Higginson of New Caledonia (d. 1904) consolidated the former by founding the trading society which afterwards became the Société française des Nouvelles-Hébrides. In 1886 one of the most serious of many native outbreaks occurred, necessitating a French demonstration of force from New Caledonia. An Anglo-French convention of the 16th of November 1887 provided for the surveillance of the islands (protection of life and property) by a mixed commission of naval officers. The Anglo-French agreement of 1904 had a clause providing for an arrangement as to proper jurisdiction over the natives and for the appointment of a commission to settle disputes between British and French landed proprietors. In this and the following year there was much unrest among the natives, and a joint punitive expedition was necessary. Strong feeling was aroused meanwhile in Australia owing to the disabilities suffered by British settlers in the islands. British annexation, or at least a division of the group into British and French spheres, was urged. But on the 20th of October 1906 a convention was signed in London, confirming a protocol of the preceding 27th of February, and providing that "the group of the New Hebrides, including the Banks and Torres Islands,' should form " region of joint influence," in which British and French subjects should have equal rights in all respects. and by the state of New York; E., by the Hudson river, which separates the state from New York, and by the Atlantic Ocean; and S. and W. by the Delaware Bay and river, which separate New Jersey from Delaware and Pennsylvania. All the boundaries except the northern are natural. New Jersey has an extreme length, N. and S., of 166 m., an extreme width, E. and W., of 57 m., and a total area of 8224 sq. m., of which 710 sq. m. are water-surface. graphic belts-the Appalachian, the Highlands, the Triassic LowPhysiography.-There are within the state four distinct topoland and the Coastal Plain. The folded Appalachian belt crosses the N.W. corner of the state, and includes the Kittatinny Mountain and Valley. The mountain has a north-east-south-west trend, crossing the Delaware river at the Delaware Water Gap and continuing S.W. into Pennsylvania. In width the range varies from 4 or 5 m. in the N. to about 2 m. in the S. Its western foot lies along the Delaware river, which for some distance flows parallel with the range, and has an altitude of about 400 ft. above the sea at Port Jervis, where it enters the state, and of about 300 ft. at the Water Gap, where it leaves it. Where the crest of the ridge enters the state its elevation is 1539 ft.; at High Point, 1 m. S.W. the ridge attains a height of 1803 ft., the highest point within the state. A short distance S.W. of this point, in a depression in the mountain Gap the mountain again narrows to a ridge, and for a portion of its crest, is Lake Marcia, at an elevation of 1570 ft. Beyond Culver's length it is double-crested. On the eastern side the slope is so abrupt as to make ascent difficult and at places impossible, but the western slope, on account of a dip of the rock to the N.W., is more gradual. The eastern foot has a very uniform altitude of from 900 to 1000 ft. above the sea. The crest of the ridge is from 600 to 1200 ft. W. of the foot, and from 450 to 600 ft. above it. At the Water Gap the ridge is cut through to its base, and the Delaware river flows through the opening. This gap, 900 ft. wide at the base and 4500 ft. wide at the top, with sides rising very abruptly to a height of 1200 ft. and more, is an impressive sight. The Kittatinny Valley, S.E. of and parallel to the Kittatinny Range, is about 40 m. long and 12 m. wide and has an average elevation of 700 ft. Its western margin is from 900 to 1000 ft. above the sea, and its eastern border is from 400 to 500 ft. lower. The floor of the valley is very undulating, and contains numerous small streams, whose divides are from 700 to 900 ft. above the sea. South-east of the Kittatinny Valley, and parallel with it, lies the second topographic belt, the Highlands. This region embraces an area of 900 sq. m., having a length, N.E. and S.W., of 60 m., and a width varying from 9 to 18 m. It consists of an upland plateau now dissected by streams into a series of hills and ridges, and corresponds to the Piedmont Belt farther to the S.W. and to the upland region of southern New England. The average elevation of the Highlands is about 1000 ft.; the highest point, between Canisteer and Vernon, in Sussex county, being 1496 ft. The third belt, called the Triassic Lowland, occupies about one-fifth of the surface of the state. Its N.W. border is marked by a line drawn S.W. across the state through Pompton, Morristown, Lebanon and Highbridge to the Delaware; its S.E. border by a line drawn from Woodbridge to Trenton. The surface is irregular, with altitudes ranging from about sea-level to 900 ft. A noteworthy feature of this area is the series of trap rock ridges, between which the Passaic river makes its irregular way through a region of flat bottom lands. On the N. E. border of the Lowland, one of these trap ridges lines the western bank of the Hudson river for about 25 m., and is known as the Palisade Ridge, or simply the Palisades, because of the scenic effect produced by the columnar jointing and steep castern wall of the trap sheet. To the W. the slope of the ridge is very gentle. The Palisades extend from a point N. of the New York boundary as far S. as Weehawken, their height gradually decreasing southward. A slope of débris occurs at the E. base of the Palisade Ridge, but the summit is covered with trees. The trap formation extends to the Kill van Kull Channel, and includes, among other ridges, the so-called First and Second Watchung (or Orange) Mountains W. of the group of suburbs known as the Oranges," but S. of Weehawken it has no scenic attractiveness. With the exception of the ridges, the Triassic Lowland N. of the Raritan river is usually below 200 ft. in altitude; S. of the Raritan the topography of this belt is similar to the northern portion, but much of the area is over 200 ft. above the sea. Southeast of the Triassic Lowland lics the fourth topographic belt, the Coastal Plain, containing an area of 4400 sq. m., or slightly more than one-half the entire surface of the state. This belt, bordered on the E., S. and W. by water, is highest near its centre and lowest along its margins. It is free from mountainous ridges, but there are a number of isolated hills, such as the Navesink Highlands (259 ft.) in Monmouth county. One-third of the Coastal Plain is below 50 ft. in altitude; two-fifths are between 50 and 100 ft.; and somewhat more than a fourth of the area is over 100 ft. above sea-level. The total area of the belt as high as 200 ft. above the sea does not exceed 15 sq. m. About one-cighth of the area consists of tidal marsh, lying chiefly between the long sandy ridges or barrier beaches of the Atlantic coast and the mainland. The width of the marsh varies from 1 to 6 m., being least in the extreme N. and S. and greatest near the mouths of streams. There is also a marsh along Delaware Bay, unprotected by a beach. The waters between these beaches and the mainland are gradually filling with sediment and changing into tidal marsh. In addition to the stretches of marsh along the coast, the eastward-flowing rivers of the Coastal Plain are fringed with large areas of swamp land, some of which is well forested. For the entire state the average elevation is 250 ft., with 4100 sq. m. below 100 ft.; 2100 sq. m. between 100 and 500 ft.; 1400 sq. m. between 500 and 1000 ft.; and 215 sq. m. between 1000 and 1500 ft. The four topographic belts of the state correspond very closely to the outcrops of its geological formations; the rocks of the Appalachian belt being of Palaeozoic age; the formation of the Highlands, Archaean; that of the Triassic Lowland, Triassic; that of the irregular hills of the Coastal Plain, Cretaceous and Tertiary. The great terminal moraine of the glacial epoch crosses the N.E.S.W. topographic belts of the state, in an irregular line running W. and N.W., from Staten Island, N.Y. North of the morainic belt the effect of the glaciation is seen in the irregular courses of the streams, the numerous lakes and freshwater marshes and the falls and rapids along those streams displaced by the glaciers from their former courses. The effect of glaciation on the soil is noted in a later paragraph. The Delaware river, from its junction with the Neversink Creek to the capes, flows along the western and southern borders of the state for a distance of 245 m., and has a total drainage area in New Jersey of 2345 sq. m. Of equal importance is the Hudson, whose lower waters, forming the north-eastern boundary of New Jersey for a distance of 22 m., drain a very small part of the state, but have contrib A materially to the state's commercial develop ment. The streams lying wholly within the state are relatively unimportant. Of the tributaries to the Delaware river the northernmost is Flat Brook, 25 m. long, draining an area of 65 sq. m. W. of the Kittatinny Mountain. The Kittatinny Valley is drained by Paulins Kill and the Pequest river in the E. and S.E., and by the Walkill river in the N.E. Of the streams of the Highlands and the Triassic Lowland, the Passaic river is the most important. Rising in the N.E.-in the southern part of Morris county-it pursues a winding north-easterly course, passing through a gap in the trap rock at Little Falls, and by means of a cascade and a mile of rapids descends 40 ft. At Paterson, 3 m. farther, the stream passes through a crevasse in the trap rock and has a sheer fall of 70 ft. (the Great Falls of the Passaic). The stream then makes a sharp bend southward and empties into Newark Bay. The Passaic and its small tributaries-the Whippany, Rockaway, Pequanac, Wanaque, Saddle and Ramapo-drain an area of about 950 sq. m. On account of the rapid fall of its tributaries, the union of so many of them with the main stream near its middle course and the obstructions to the flow of the water in the lower course, the Passaic is subject to disastrous floods. In 1903 a heavy rainfall caused a flood which continued from the 8th to the 19th of October and destroyed not less than $7,000,000 worth of property. Another, which continued from the 25th of February to the 9th of March 1902, destroyed property valued at $1,000,000 or more, and there were less dis astrous floods in 1882 and 1896. The Hackensack river enters the state about 5 m. W. of the Hudson river, flows almost parallel with that stream, and empties into Newark Bay, having a length of 34 m. and a drainage area of 201 sq. m. The Raritan river, flowing eastwardly through the centre of the state, is the largest stream lying wholly within New Jersey, and drains 1105 sq. m. Commercially, however, this stream is less important than the Passaic. In the southern half of the state the drainage is simple, and the streams are unimportant, flowing straight to the Delaware or the Atlantic. The westward streams are only small creeks; the eastward and southward streams, however, on account of the wider slope, have greater length. Among the latter are the Maurice river, 33 m. long, emptying into Delaware Bay; and the Great Egg Harbor river, 38 m. long, and the Mullica, 32 m. long, emptying into the Atlantic. In the northern part of the state, and especially among the Highlands, are numerous lakes, which are popular places of resort during the summer months. Of these the largest and the most frequented are Lake Hopatcong, an irregular body of water in Morris and Sussex counties, and Greenwood Lake, lying partly in New York and partly in New Jersey. Fauna and Flora.-The fauna of New Jersey does not differ materially from that of the other Middle Atlantic states. Large game has almost disappeared. The red, or Virginia, deer and the grey fox are still found in circumscribed localities; and of the smaller mammals, the squirrel, chipmunk, rabbit, raccoon and opossum are still numerous. Among game birds are various species of ducks, the quail, or "Bob White," and the woodcock. The waters of the coast and bays abound in shad, menhaden, bluefish, weak-fish (squeteague), clams and oysters. The interior streams are stocked with trout, black bass and perch. The conditions of plant growth are varied. In the northern and north central parts of the state, where the soil consists partly of glacial drift, the species have a wider range than is the case farther S., where the soil is more uniform. New Jersey is a meeting ground for many species which have their principal habitat farther N. or farther S., and its flora therefore may be divided into a northern and a southern. Still another class, and the most clearly marked of all, is the flora of the beaches, salt marshes and meadows. The total woodland area of the state is about 3234 sq. m. Two distinct types of forest are recognized, with the usual transition zone between them. South and east of a line drawn approximately from Seabright to Glassboro, and thence southward to Delaware Bay, is a nearly level, sandy region known as "The Pines." This is the great forest area of the state; it contains about 1,200,000 acres of woodland, practically continuous, and portions of it still but sparsely inhabited. The original forest has been entirely removed, but a young growth of the same tree species, chiefly pitch pine with a variety of oaks, replaces it. Within "The Pines," immediately north of the Mullica river, lies an area of about 20,000 acres called "The Plains." are sparsely clothed with prostrate pitch pine, scrub oak and laurel. Tree forms are entirely absent. The cause of this condition is still undetermined. Along the streams in this section are many swamps, valuable for the white cedar that they produce, or when cleared, for cranberry bogs. The northern part of the state is much more rugged, These As the waters of the stream have been diverted into mill races, the river very seldom makes this leap in its natural channel. The power thus generated has been largely instrumental in creating the city of Paterson (q.v.). The total length of the Passaic is about 100 m., but its course is so irregular that the distance in a straight line from its source to its mouth is only about 15 m. See G. B. Hollister and M. O. Leighton, The Passaic Flood of 1902 (Washington, 1903), and M. O. Leighton, The Passaic Flood f 1903 (Washington, 1904), being numbers 88 and 92 of the Water Supply and Irrigation Papers of the U.S. Geological Survey. |