of the Gila river and W. of the Rio Grande. Here volcanic activity and powerful erosion have combined to produce a series of remarkable scenic effects. The eastern border of this area is formed by the valley of the Rio Grande and the western foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains; the southern boundary overlooks the Gila river; and on the N. and W. the plateau continues into Colorado, Utah and Arizona. Near its southern and eastern borders are many lava flows and extinct volcanic mountains, one of the most imposing of those in New Mexico being the Mt. Taylor volcano (11,389 ft.), which is surrounded by lava tables and some of the most wonderful volcanic buttes in the world. In other portions of New Mexico there is also much evidence of former volcanic activity. A conspicuous feature of the New Mexican landscape is the mesa, a flat-topped hill created by differential erosion and projecting above the surrounding country like a table. A notable example is the mesa of Acoma, in Valencia county, capped with volcanic rocks; upon its summit, about 350 ft. above the plain, is the Indian pueblo of Acoma. The average elevation of New Mexico is 5700 ft,, with 40,200 sq. m. between 3000 and 5000 ft.; 56,680 sq. m. between 5000 and 7000 ft.; 22,500 sq. m. between 7000 and 9000 ft.; and 2000 sq. m. above 9000 ft.

For a region with such a small amount of rainfall the rivers are numerous, but none of the streams is navigable, and in many of them during the dry season (and in some of them because of broken stratification) the water in places disappears entirely beneath the sandy bed, and after flowing underground for some distance, breaks out afresh farther on as a river, rivulet or spring. The most important stream is the Rio Grande, which, rising in southern Colorado, enters New Mexico through deep canyons near the centre of the northern boundary and continues southward across the entire state. During its course it changes from a mountain stream in the N. to a sluggish river turgid with sand in the S. In the lowlands it loses much of its volume through evaporation and absorption by the sands, and through irrigation, and in its lower course in New Mexico its bed is frequently dry. In the flood season it usually leaves its banks and inundates the lowlands, spreading over the sands a rich deposit of silt; and on account of this characteristic it is sometimes called "the Nile of New Mexico." The stream next in importance is the Pecos river, which rises in Mora county and flows outhward into Texas, where it joins the Rio Grande. It has the same general characteristics as the latter river, being a mountain stream near its source, and after leaving the highlands becoming sluggish and losing much of its water. Along the lower course many underground streams from the mountains break out as springs and empty into the Pecos. The Canadian river drains the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains and flows in a general south-easterly direction through Texas into Oklahoma, where it empties into the Arkansas. Most of its course in New Mexico lies through a canyon. The westward-flowing streams-the San Juan, Rio Puerco of the West, Zuñi, Rio San Francisco and Gila-are of only slight importance, though their flow is perennial. In the valleys there are many small streams whose waters never reach the ocean, but disappear by seepage or evaporation.

Fauna and Flora.-Of native animals the species are numerous, but their numbers are small. Bison no longer roam the plains, and the elk has been driven out; but among the larger mammals still to be found in certain districts are the deer, prong-horn (in small numbers), puma, coyote, timber wolf, lynx (Lynx rufus and Lynx Canadensis) and the black and grizzly bear. Badgers, hares and rabbits are found everywhere, and prairie-dogs are so numerous in some places as to be considered a nuisance. There are numerous species of aquatic birds. From time to time upon the Rio Grande may be seen ducks, wild geese, swans, cranes, herons and gulls. Eagles are often seen, and in the arid and elevated regions crows and ravens are numerous. Gamble's quail, bob-white, grouse, English pheasants and wild turkeys are the most important game birds, and the mocking-bird is common throughout south-western New Mexico. Among the venomous reptiles and insects are the rattlesnake, the Gila monster (Heloderma suspectum), a poisonous lizard, and the tarantula (Mygale Heintzii), which, however, are common only in certain places and at certain seasons..

New Mexico has such a great range of elevations that all four of the zones of vegetation into which the South-West has been divided according to altitude are found within its limits; namely, the zone of cactus, yucca and agave (3000-3500 ft.), where grass is scanty; the zone of greasewood and sage-brush (3500-4900 ft.), where there is little grass, and the cactus species are less numerous; the zone of the cedar (4900-6800 ft.); and the zone of the pine and fir (680010,800 ft.), in which grass is more abundant. The total woodland area has been estimated at 23,700 sq. m., or a little more than 19% of the land area. Only the higher ranges and plateaus are timbered, and even there the forests are not dense. The lower slopes are usually covered with the scrub oak, juniper and piñon; but some mountains, especially those along the eastern border of the Rio Grande Valley, are absolutely treeless. The principal forest areas are upon the southern end of the San Juan Range, upon the Sangre de Cristo Range and in Socorro county, W. of the Rio Grande. The chief varieties of timber are the red fir, Engelmann's spruce and vellow pine. Up to 1910 the Federal government had created eleven forest reservations in New Mexico, embracing an area of

10,971,711 acres. In the valleys the only trees native to the soil are the willow and cottonwood, found along the water courses, and beyond the range of irrigation vegetation is limited to scanty grass, with sage-brush and greasewood in the N. and cactus and yucca in the S. Climate. As the winds that reach New Mexico have been desiccated while crossing the plains of Texas or the mountains of the N.W., the climate is characterized by a lack of humidity. The sandy soil quickly absorbs the sun's heat and also quickly radiates it, so that there is great daily variation in the temperature. The low humidity, high altitudes and southern latitude all combine to make the climate salubrious and especially beneficial to persons suffering with pulmonary disorders. The highest temperature ever recorded was 110° F. at Roswell; the lowest, -23° at Aztec. At Santa Fé, where mountain and plain meet, the mean annual temperature is 49°; the mean for the winter is 31° and for the summer 67°; and the highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded were respectively 97° and -13°. At Fort Bayard, in the S.W., the mean temperature for the year is 55°; the mean for the winter is 39°, with an extreme recorded of -1°; the mean for the summer is 72°, with a maximum recorded of 103. At Mesilla Park, in the lower Rio Grande Valley, the mean annual temperature is 60°; for the winter it is 43°, with a minimum of 1°, and for the summer 77°, with a maximum of 106°. In all parts of New Mexico except the N.W. there is a so-called wet season, which begins early in July and lasts for a month or six weeks, the rain coming in the form of short afternoon thunderstorms. About a third of the precipitation occurs during July and August, but after August the monthly precipitation is steadily less until March, in which month only about 3% of the annual rainfall occurs. For all of New Mexico the mean precipitation is about 13 in., ranging from 9 in. in the lower Rio Grande Valley to 25 in. on the mountain ranges at elevations of 10,000 ft. and over. In the valleys there are usually about two snows a year and these quickly disappear; but on the mountain peaks and in the canyons the snow accumulates to great depths and forms a steady source of water-supply for the rivers. It is the melting of the snows on the Rocky Mountains, and not the rainy season, that produces the floods of the Rio Grande. Soils. The prevailing type of soil on the higher lands is a sandy loam, underlaid with clay or clay loam, which stores water and is the typical soil of the basins. Along the river valleys there are limited areas of fine sediment, and here with irrigation good crops can be grown without the use of fertilizers. In the plains where drainage is poor, especially in the S., the soils contain too much alkali; but in the highlands most of this has been dissolved and carried away by the rains, and the soils are well adapted for grazing grounds.

Agriculture. Because of the small amount of rainfall, agriculture is confined chiefly to the river valleys. In 1900 only 4.2% of the land surface was included in farms, and less than 27 of 1 % was classed as improved farm land. The total acreage, however, rose from 787,882 in 1890 to 5,130,878 in 1900, an increase of 551-2%Between 1850 and 1880 there was very little increase in farm area. The amount of improved land, though showing an absolute increase between 1880 and 1900, declined relatively to the total area in farms from 37.6% in 1880 to 6-4% in 1900. At the same time the average size of farms (not including farms with an area of less than 3 acres, which reported an annual income of less than $500) increased from 124-9 acres in 1880 to 433.6 acres in 1900. This decrease in the proportion of improved acreage and increase in the average size of the farms is due to the increased use of lands for grazing purposes. As regards tenure, 90.6% of the farms in 1900 were operated by owners, 2.2% by cash tenants, and 7.2% by share tenants. In this year 39.6% of the farms derived their principal income from hay and grain, 33.2% from live stock, 55% from dairy produce, 3.5% from vegetables, 2.8% from fruits. The most important crop, as a result of irrigation, is alfalfa, which is grown for forage, requires little attention, and improves the soil. Wheat, Indian corn and oats are the leading cereal crops; and S. of the latitude of Santa Fé vegetables and deciduous fruits flourish where the watersupply is ample. A little cotton has been grown near Carlsbad in the Pecos Valley, and in 1909 sugar beets were introduced south of Albuquerque and cantaloupes in the southern Rio Grande Valley, Fruit, especially the Bartlett pear, is very successful. The total value of farm property in 1900 was $53,767,824, and the value of the live stock, $31,727,400. The value of the farm products in 1879 was $1,897,974, in 1889 $1.784,824, and in 1899 $10,155,215. In 1909 the values of the principal farm products (according to the Year Book of the U.S. Department of Agriculture) were as follows: hay, $5.339,000; wheat, $1,175,000; Indian corn, $1,915,000; oats, $634,000; and potatoes, $86,000. The values of the various classes of live stock on the 1st of January 1910 were as follows: sheep, $13.714.000; milch cows, $1,125,000; other neat cattle, $15,677,000; horses, $6,251,000; mules, $632,000; swine, $272,000. Stock-raising is the most important industry, and the growing of sheep for wool takes a leading place. The hills and mesas covered with the nutritious grama grass form excellent grazing grounds, which are most extensive in Bernalillo, Guadalupe, Rio Arriba, San Miguel, Union and Valencia counties. In April 1907 (according to an estimate of the National Association of Wool Manufacturers) New Mexico contained 2,600,000 sheep, the largest

number in any state or Territory except Montana and Wyoming; and in April 1909 there were 3,200,000 sheep of shearing age in New Mexico, but this number was less than that in Montana or Wyoming at that time.

Except in a few mountain valleys in the N., agriculture was long entirely dependent upon irrigation, which has been practised in New Mexico by the Pueblo Indians since prehistoric times. In 1899. the total irrigated area outside of Indian reservations amounted to 203,893 acres (67.2% of all improved land)-an increase of 122.2% in the preceding decade. Of the total land in crops in that year 89.2% was irrigated. After the passage of the Federal Reclamation Act in 1902, a number of extensive irrigation works in New Mexico were undertaken by the Federal government. The Carlsbad reservoir and diverting dam in Eddy county and the Rio Hondo canals and reservoir in Chaves county were completed in 1907 and are capable of supplying water to tracts of 20,000 and 10,000 acres respectively. In 1908 an irrigation reservoir in McKinley county for the use of the Zuni Indians and the Leasburg project (Dona Ana county; 20,000 acres) were completed. The Rio Grande project was planned in 1907 for the storage of the flood waters of the Rio Grande near Engle, New Mexico, in order to reclaim about 155,000 acres of land in New Mexico and Texas, and to deliver to Mexico above the city of Juarez 60,000 acre-feet of water per year, as provided by a treaty (proclaimed on the 16th of January 1907) between that republic and the United States. Other systems contemplated by the government were the Las Vegas project for reclaiming 10,000 acres near Las Vegas, the Urton Lake project for reclaiming 60,000 acres in the Pecos Valley, and the La Plata Valley project for irrigating about 40,000 acres in the northwestern part of New Mexico, 35 m. S.W. of Durango, Colorado. A special irrigation commission was appointed in 1897, and in 1905 the legislature created the office of Territorial irrigation engineer. Irrigation by private companies is of some importance, especially in the San Juan Valley, the Rio Grande Valley and the Pecos Valley. In 1909 it was estimated that about 500,000 acres were irrigated. Dry farming has proved a great success in New Mexico, as elsewhere in the SouthWest, especially since 1900; and in 1907 it was estimated that 2,000,000 acres were cultivated without irrigation.

Manufactures.-As New Mexico is primarily a mining and stockraising region, its manufacturing industries are of comparatively small importance. The value of the manufactured products in 1880 was $1,284,846; in 1890 $1,516,195; and in 1900 $5,605,795, an increase in the latter decade of 269.7%. In 1905 there were 199 establishments under the factory system (an increase of 14.4% over the number in 1900); the amount of capital invested was $4,638,248, and the value of "factory products was $5.705,880 (an increase of 40.5% over the value of the "factory" products in 1900). The leading industries in 1905 were the construction of cars and general railway shop and repair work by steam railway companies (value of product, $2,509,845), the manufacture of lumber and timber products (value $1,315,364) and of flour and grist mill products (value $388,124), and the printing and publishing of newspapers and periodicals (value $279,858). In 1900 the manufactures of Albuquerque, Santa Fé and Socorro were valued at 39.4% of the total value of New Mexico's products.

Minerals. The existence of valuable mineral deposits was early known to the Spaniards. There was some production of gold by the Mexicans, but the silver mining was unimportant until 1881, when the Lake Valley silver mines in Sierra county began to yield. Between that year and 1884 the coining value of the silver product increased from $275,000 to $3,000,000. After 1885 there was a gradual decline in the output, whose bullion value in 1908 was $250,986. The production of gold has shown a somewhat similar movement; the output in 1881 was valued at $185,000; in 1889, at $1,000,000, and in 1908 at $298,757. The leading gold- and silver-producing counties are Socorro, Grant, Sierra and Dona Ana. Only silver is mined in the last-named county. Copper has been mined for many years, and in 1906 and 1908 constituted New Mexico's most valuable metallic product, the value of the yield in these years being $1,356.533 and $658,858 respectively. Nearly all the product comes from Grant county, and in 1908 nearly 98% of the output was from Grant and Otero counties. In 1905-1908 the decrease in output was large. In the same years there was an increase in the output of zinc, which in 1906 was valued at $67.710 and in 1908 at $168,096. Most of the zinc comes from Socorro county, where the mines of the Magdalena District in 1908 yielded 93% of the entire product. A small amount of lead is produced incidentally to the mining of zinc, being derived from mixed lead and zinc ores. Far the most important mineral product, however, is coal, which is found in all forms-lignite to anthracite-and in widely distributed areas. The chief centres of production are the Raton field, in Colfax county; the Durango-Gallup field, in McKinley and Rio Arriba counties; the Whiteoaks field, in Lincoln county; and the Los Cerillos and Tejon areas, in Santa Fé county. Much of the coal is suitable for coke of which a considerable amount is manufactured. The value of the coal product in 1902 was $1,500,230; in 1904, $1,904,499; and in 1908, $3.368.753. Iron ores are widely distributed, but have not been developed; graphite is mined in Colfax county; mica in Taes county, and to a small extent in Rio Arriba county; marble is quarried in Otero county and sandstone in Bernalillo, Colfax and San Miguel counties. Gypsum beds are widely distributed, and the

supply is inexhaustible, but their great distance from centres of consumption has prevented their profitable working. In New Mexico are found turquoises and a few garnets; it seems probable that turquoises were mined by the Aztecs. The largest of the old Spanish turquoise mines in the Cerillos District, 18 m. S. of Santa Fé, furnished a turquoise product between 1890 and 1900 valued at more than $2,000,000. Other mines are in Grant and Otero counties. The New Mexican garnets are found in McKinley county. The output of precious stones in 1902 was valued at $51,100, in 1908 at $72,100. Transportation.-The total railway milcage on the 31st of December 1908 was 2,918-02, more than twice as much as that of 1890. The length of railway per inhabitant in New Mexico in 1907 was about five times as great as that for the whole country, but the amount of line per square mile of territory was only about one-third as great as the average for the United States. New Mexico is traversed by two transcontinental lines, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, from Chicago to San Francisco and the Southern Pacific, from New Orleans to San Francisco. The main line of the former enters New Mexico near Raton, extends S.W. to Albuquerque and thence westward into Arizona. A southward extension taps the Southern Pacific at El Paso, Texas, and Deming, New Mexico, and there are numerous shorter branches. This system also controls the Pecos Valley & North-Eastern railway, which serves the southwestern part of New Mexico. The Southern Pacific crosses New Mexico westward from El Paso, Texas. The western division of the El Paso & South-Western system, connecting El Paso and Benson, Arizona, crosses New Mexico just N. of the Mexican boundary. Its castern division (including the El Paso & NorthEastern, the El Paso & Rock Island, the Alamogordo & Sacramento Mountain and the Dawson railways) connects with the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific at Tucumcari; thus forming a connecting link between that system and the Southern Pacific. The Santa Fe Central, extending southward from Santa Fé to Torrance, is a connecting link between the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé and the El Paso & South-Western systems. Branches of the Denver & Rio Grande serve the northern parts of New Mexico.

Population. The population of New Mexico consists of three distinct classes-Indians; Spanish-Americans, locally known as "Mexicans "; and the English-speaking class called, in distinction from the others, "Americans." Of the Indians there are two types, both of the Athapascan family; in one are the Pueblos, and in the other the Navahos, in the N.W. part of the state, and their near kinsmen, the Apaches, to the south. The Pueblo Indians live in adobe houses, are quict and usually self-sustaining, and have been converted to the forms of Christianity. They had irrigated farms and dwelt in six-storey com. munal houses long before the advent of the white man. By the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, in 1848, the United States government recognized them as citizens. They lived in 19 villages of pueblos, the largest of which, Zuñi, is more properly called a reservation, as it has been enlarged from time to time by grants from the Federal government. The 18 pueblos and the Zuñi reservation contained in 1900 a population of 8127, and a totai area of 1417 sq. m. The pueblos are held under Spanish grants which were confirmed by the United States. The terraced architecture of the villages is very remarkable. Originally the Pueblo Indians lived in many-storeyed communal houses, built sometimes of stone, sometimes of adobe, and occasionally chiselled into the sides of a stone cliff, as best suited the convenience of the builders. At present there is a tendency among them to copy the one-storey huts of the Mexicans. Taos (pop. in 1900, 419) is one of the most imposing of the pueblos, consisting of two six-storeyed pyramidal tenements, separated by a brook. Zuni (pop. 1525) has a five-storeyed dwelling surrounded by detached huts; Acoma (pop. 492 in 1900; 566 in 1902), standing on a cliff 357 ft. high (Acoma means "people of the white rock " and Aco, the Indian name for the pueblo, means "white rock"), contains three blocks of three-storeyed terraced buildings, and Laguna also contains some three-storeyed

About 3 m. N.E. of Acoma stands the Enchanted Mesa (Mesa Encantada; Katzimo in Keresan), rising 430 ft. above the plain, and being 2050 ft. long and 100 to 350 ft. wide. Upon its summit, according to Indian tradition, once stood the village of Acoma, but while the inhabitants were tending their crops in the plains a powerful earth movement threw down the rocky ladder by which alone the summit could be reached. According to the story, three women had been left in the village and these perished. The Mesa was first climbed by white men in 1896 by Prof. William Libbey (b. 1855), of Princeton University; it was climbed again in 1897 by a party led by F. W. Hodge; and pottery and stone implements were found here.