its present name, in 1884, the former university of Louisiana (1834) being merged in it; it gives free tuition in the academic department to one student from each senatorial and each representative district or parish in the state, and its income-producing property, up to $5,000,000, is exempted from taxation by the state. In 1908-1909 Tulane University had 192 instructors and 2236 students; and it included a Graduate Department, a College of Arts and Sciences (1884), a College of Technology with 157 students, Extension Courses with 148 students, the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Girls (1886; endowed in memory of her only daughter by Josephine Louise, wife of Warren Newcomb, a sugar merchant of the city), with 288 students in the college and 102 in Newcomb High School, a Teachers' College, a Law Department (1847), a Medical Depart ment (1834) with 648 students, a Department of Pharmacy and a Summer School with 860 students. The College of the Immaculate Conception (Jesuit, 1847) is an important school. Higher schools for the negroes include Leland University (1870: Baptist), with college courses, preparatory courses (there are several Baptist secondary schools affiliated with the university), normal and manual training departments, a school of music, a theological school, a woman's Christian Workers' Class and a night school; Straight University (1870; Congregational), with kindergarten, primary, high school and industrial departments; New Orleans University (1873; Methodist) and Southern University (1883). The last is supported by the state. Libraries. The public, society and school libraries in the city in 1909, many being very small, aggregated 301,000 volumes, 227,000 being in five collections. A central library building and three branch buildings, costing $275,000, were presented to the city by Andrew Carnegie. The Howard Memorial Library (1887) is an important reference library, peculiarly rich in books on the history of Louisiana. The Louisiana Historical Society (1836) and the Athenée Louisiannaise (1876) may also be mentioned; the latter has for its purpose the conservation and cultivation of the French language. The Union Franchaise (1872) supplements with educational and charitable activities the general bond of fraternity offered by it to the French population. In New Orleans there is a State Museum, devoted to the history, institutions and resources of the state.

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practically eliminated, and uncertainty as to the investment of By 1900 the drawbacks which have been enumerated had been capital had been removed. The southward tendency in railway traffic favours the city. Deep water to the ocean was secured by built by James B. Eads in 1875-1879; but in time this ceased a system of jetties at the South Pass mouth of the Mississippi, to maintain an adequate depth of water, and (after the report in 1900 of a board of engineers) in 1902 Congress began appropriations for an improvement of the South-west Pass1 by opening a channel 1000 ft. wide and at least 35 ft. deep. Many lines of steamers give direct connexion with the West Indies, Central America, Europe, New York and also with Japan (for the shipment of raw cotton via Suez). Ocean steamers, loaded in large part by elevators, now bear away the exports for which a swarm of sailing-ships of much lighter draft and average freight-room once made long stays at the city's wharves. Passenger traffic on the rivers has practically vanished, and the shrunken fleet of river steamers (only 15 in 1907) are devoted to the carrying of slow freights and the towing of barges on the rivers and bayous of the lower Mississippi Valley.

As a

The total value of all merchandise exported in the six customs imports $37,319,254. For the ten years 1890-1899 the correspondyears 1902-1903 to 1907-1908 averaged $154,757.110 yearly, and the ing averages were $95,956,618 and $15.924,594. increased in the ten customs years preceding 1906-1907 from Bank clearings $447,673.946 to $1,027,798,476 (bank clearings were $956,154.504 and $786,067,353 respectively for the calendar years 1907 and 1908). There has been an extraordinary increase of exports since 1900, and imports from Central America have similarly increased. represents roughly two-thirds of the value of all exports. Cotton cotton port New Orleans in 1908 was second only to Galveston, which had only recently surpassed it; and more than half of the raw cotton exports of the country passed through these two ports. The Board of Trade has maintained a cotton-inspection department since 1884, and its statistics are standard on the cotton crop. Cotton exports in the four seasons 1903-1904 to 1906-1907 averaged 1,001,199.468 lb, valued at $104,108,824. Wheat and flour, Indian corn, lumber and tobacco are especially noteworthy articles of the export, and bananas and coffee of the import, trade. Importations of coffee have more than quintupled since 1900; the coffee comes for the most part from Brazil and grain wholly from American fields. The imports of bananas, for which New Orleans is the leading port of the country, more than doubled in the same period, and increased more than eight-fold in the twenty-five years following 1882 (1,200,000 to 10,200,000 bunches).

Newspapers.-Among the older newspapers are L'Abeille (1827) and the Picayune (1837), which is one of the most famous and influential papers of the South, and was founded by George Wilkins Kendall (1809-1867), a native of New Hampshire, who organized a special military correspondence for his paper during the Mexican War, probably the earliest instance of such service in the United States. The Times-Democrat (1863) is counted among the ablest and most energetic papers of the South. De Bow's Commercial Review (published in New Orleans 1846-1864), founded and edited by James D. B. De Bow (1820-1867), was in its day one of the most important periodicals of the country, and remains a valuable repository of information on conditions in the South before the war. Commerce. It was its potential commercial value, as indicated by its geographical position, that in 1803, when New Orleans was Railway traffic has grown immensely, and port facilities have only a small, poor and remote Franco-Spanish-American port, city (built 1905-1907) connects all railway terminals, public wharves been vastly improved in recent years. Á belt railway owned by the led to its purchase by the United States. But various causes and many manufactories and warehouses. Public ownership prooperated to impede the city's growth: the invention of railway tects the city's interest in the harbour front, while at the same time transit, the development of the carrying trade on the Great all railways are equally and cheaply served; and new railways, Lakes, the bars at the mouth of the Mississippi, over which few which could not enter the city or have access to the water front large ships could pass, the scourge of yellow fever, the pro-enter on the municipal belt. Of privately owned railway terminals because of the impossibility of securing individual trackage, can now vincialism and the lethargy of an isolated and indolent civiliza- in 1908 those of the Illinois Central system had nearly 200 m. of tion. Slavery kept away free labour, and the plantation track; the Stuyvesant Docks of the railway have 15 m. of track, a system fostered that " 'improvidence and that feudal self-comwharf almost 1 m. long, immense warehouses and grain elevators. The New Orleans Terminal Company constructed at Chalmette placency which looked with indolent contempt upon public co-operative measures (G. W. Cable). However, in 1860 the exports, imports and domestic receipts of New Orleans aggregated $324,000,000. As a result of the Civil War the commerce of New Orleans experienced an early paralysis; the port was soon blockaded by the United States navy; the city fell into the hands of the Federal forces (1st May 1862); its commerce with the interior was practically annihilated until after 1865, and from the depression of the years following the war the city did not fully recover for a quarter of a century. Only after 1880 did its total commerce again equal that of 1860. It was almost solely as the dispenser of the products of the greatest agricultural valley in the world that New Orleans grew from a little frontier town to the dimensions of a great city. This trade is still dominant in the city's commerce. In the season that follows the harvest of the South and West, the levee, the wharves and the contiguous streets are gorged with the raw staples of the regions that lie about the Mississippi and its greater and lesser tributaries-sugar, molasses, rice, tobacco, Indian corn, pork, staves, wheat, oats, flour and, above all else, from onefourth to one-third the country's entire supply of cotton. other movement is subsidiary or insignificant.

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1 The South-west Pass, originally the usual entrance, could not aided by dredging, provided through the South Pass (500 ft. broad) be entered by vessels drawing more than 16 ft.; the Eads jetties, a channel 180 ft. wide and 25 to 28 ft. deep. South-west Pass has always been the primary outlet of the river, venting half or more of its volume. Active work on its improvement was begun in 1903 and practically completed in 1909. Including the jetties, this Pass the deep channel through it is more than 1000 ft. wide. The jetties, is nearly 20 m. long and has an average width of about 2150 ft.; 4 m. long on one side and 3 m. on the other, are 6000 ft. apart at their head and 3600 ft. at the sea line. They are built on willow mats (foundation mats 200X150X2 ft.) in wooden frames, sunk with stone and surmounted above the water by a concrete wall. The value of the river commerce was about $8,000,000 in 1816 and $82,000,000 in 1849. The first steamboat descended the Mississippi to New Orleans (from Pittsburg) in 1811, and the first steamboat trip up the river was made in 1817. The halcyon period of river boats then on the Mississippi and the immense volume of the freightsteamer traffic was from 1840 to 1860. The luxury of the passenger ing traffic are things of the past since the advent of the railway cra. The best time ever made (1870) from New Orleans to St Louis (1278 m.) was 3 days, 21 hours and 25 minutes. The races of these river boats were prominent news items in the papers of America and even in those of Europe, and they have been recorded in more than one page of literature. Steam packets replaced sailing vessels in the ocean trade about 1845.

of which $154,604,325 was realty and the remainder personalty. The bonded debt on the 30th of June 1909 was $32,521,040 and the floating debt at the end of 1908 was $1,264,030.

From 1890 to 1900 the expenditures for permanent works (includ ing sewerage, lighting, paving, levees, improvements in connexion with street and steam railways, docks, &c.) aggregated $30,000,000. Almost all the public services, nevertheless, were in 1909 in private hands. Electric traction was introduced in 1891-1895, and the street railways were consolidated in 1902 under one management. In 1869 the city bought, and nine years later sold again, the waterworks; municipal ownership and control, under a sewerage and water board, was again undertaken in 1900. In 1900 arrangements were made to transfer the extensive markets from private lessees to direct municipal control, and in May 1901 the wharves of the city passed from private to municipal control. The municipal belt railway was constructed in 1905-1907.

(1908) splendid terminals, including an immense slip in the river | In 1909 the total assessed valuation of property was $221,373,362, (1500 X 300 ft., excavated to give 30 ft. of water below zero gauge) capable of accommodating nine vessels at dock simultaneously, and arranged with remarkable conveniences for the loading of grain. Steel-concrete warehouses and elevators surround the slip. The greater industrial establishments of the city cluster about the terminals. New Orleans is served by eleven railways, including the Illinois Central, Southern Pacific, Texas & Pacific and Louisville & Nashville systems. The New Orleans & North-eastern crosses Lake Pontchartrain over a trestle bridge 7 m. long (originally 25 m. before end filling). Within the city are two canals, now of little importance, because too shallow except for local trade: the Carondelet or Old Basin canal, built in 1798, is 2.5 m. long, 55-65 ft. wide and 7 ft. deep, and goes via Bayou St John to Lake Pontchartrain; and the New Basin Canal, built in 1837 by the New Orleans Canal & Banking Company, and state property since 1866, is 6.7 m. long, 100 ft. wide and 8 ft. deep, and also connects with Lake Pontchartrain. Neither of these canals connects with the Mississippi river as do the following privately owned canals: the Lake Borgne Canal, from a point 10 m. below the city to Lake Borgne, 7 m. long, 80 ft. wide, 7 ft. deep, shortening the water distance between Mobile and New Orleans by 60 m.; and the Barataria & Lafourche Company Canal (7 m. long, 45 ft. wide and 6 ft. deep) and Harvey's Canal (5-35 m. long, 70 ft. wide and 6 ft. deep), both connecting with the Bayou Teche region. Manufactures. Manufacturing has greatly developed since 1890. The value of products increased 146.7% from 1880 to 1890, and in the following decade the increase of wages paid, cost of materials used and value of product were respectively 7-6, 53-3 and 31-5% In 1905 the value of the factory product was $84,604,006, 45·4% of the value of the total factory product of the state, and an increase of 47.3% since 1900; during this same period capital increased 36.6%, the average number of wage-earners 8-9%, the amount of wages 20.5% and the cost of materials used 53.3%. The sugar and molasses industry is the most important, with a product value of $34.908,614 in 1905; New Orleans ranked second to Philadelphia among the cities of the country in the value of this product, that of New Orleans being 12-6% of the total value of the country's product. At New Orleans is a sugar refinery said to be the largest in the world. Of the manufactures from products of the state the most noteworthy are rice (value of product cleaned and polished in 1905. 84,881,954), bags other than paper ($4,076,226), cotton-seed oil and cake ($3.698,509), malt liquors ($2,170,714), tobacco ($1,408,883), lumber and timber products ($1,644.329) and planing mill products ($1,105,497) and cotton goods ($1,081,951). Other important manufactures are foundry and machine-shop products ($2,085,327); men's clothing ($1,979.308), coffee and spice roasted and ground ($1,638,263) and steam railway cars constructed and repaired ($1,627,435). New Orleans is the chief centre of the country for the manufacture of cotton-seed products and for rice milling. Oyster canning is a recent and rapidly growing industry. There are also furniture establishments, paper mills and cotton cloth mills.

Until 1900 there were no sewers, open gutters serving their purpose. It is remarkable that the city twice granted franchises to private parties for the construction of a sewerage system, but without result. The low and extremely level character of the city site, of which nearly one-third is at or below the level of the Gulf, the recurrence of back-water floods from Lake Pontchartrain and the tremendous rains of the region have made the engineering problems involved very difficult. In 1896 a Drainage Commission (merged in 1900 in a Sewerage and Water Board) devised a plan involving the sale of street railway franchises to pay for the installation of drainage canals and pumps, and in 1899 the people voted a 2-mill tax over 42 years assuring a bond issue of $12,000,000 to pay for sewerage, drainage and water works to be owned by the municipality and to be controlled by a Sewerage and Water Board. Work was begun on the sewerage system in 1903 and on the water works in 1905. In 1906 the legislature authorized the issue of municipal bonds for $8,000,000 to be expended on this work. Up to 1909 the drainage system had cost about $6,000,000 and the sewerage system about $5,000,000; and 310 m. of sewers and nine sewerage pumping stations discharged sewage into the Mississippi below the centre of the city. Garbage is used to fill in swamps and abandoned canals. The new water-supply is secured from the river and is filtered by mechanical precipitation and other means. By 1909 about 500 m. of water-mains had been laid, $7,000,000 had been expended for the water-system, and filtering plants had been established with a capacity of 50,000,000 gallons a day. In August 1905 a city ordinance required the screening of aerial cisterns, formerly characteristic of the city, which were breeding-places of the yellow fever Stegomyia, and soon afterwards the state legislature authorized the Sewerage and Water Board to require the removal of all such cisterns. About two-thirds of the street surface in 1899 was still unpaved; the first improvements in paving began in 1890.

As regards hygienic conditions much too has been done in recent ycars. New Orleans was long notorious for unhealthiness. Yellow fever first appeared in 1769, and there were about thirty epidemics Government.-Municipal government is organized under a from 1769 to 1878. Though the first board of health and first charter framed by the state legislature in 1896, and amended quarantine system date back to 1821, from 1787 to 1853 the average death-rate was 59.63 per 1000; never did it fall below 25.00, which by acts of 1898 and 1900. The seven municipal districts correwas the rate in 1827. In 1832, a cholera year, it rose to 148; in spond to seven independent faubourgs successively annexed. 1853-1854-1855, the great yellow-fever years, complicated in 1854-. A mayor and various other executive officers and a legislative 1855 by cholera, it was 102, 72 and 73. During these three years unicameral council are elected for four years. The mayor and there were more than 25,000 deaths. The millesimal mortality in the heads of departments consult as a "cabinet." Various 1851-1855 and succeeding quinquennial periods to 1880 was as boards of civil service, public debt, education, health, police, national census of 1900 was 28-9, the highest of any of the large follows: 70, 45, 40, 39, 34-5 and 33.5. The rate reported by the fire, drainage, water and sewerage and state commissioners of the port-control many of the most important interests of the separate governments: they issued paper money independently, for city. The mayor, through his office and his appointive powers, local self-government; the municipalities were practically indeexample. The charter of 1836 was also an extreme statement of exercises great influence in a number of these. In 1896 New pendent, although there was a common mayor and a general council Orleans followed the example of New York and Chicago in sub- of the entire city meeting once annually. This organization was in jecting its civil service to a competitive merit system and to large part due to the hostility of the creoles to the Americans. The rules of a civil service board. The police board is non-partisan. charter of 1852 formed a consolidated city. That of 1856 added to and amended its predecessor. That of 1870 was very notable as The board of education is composed of seventeen members, cach an attempt to secure a business-like and simplified administration. elected by one of the seventeen wards of the city. In addition A mayor and seven "administrators," elected on a general ticket to the city board of health, a state board acts with municipal and constituting individually the different administrative departauthority, and (since April 1907) the United States government ments, formed collectively a council with legislative powers. All sessions of the council were public, and liberties of suggestion were maintains the maritime quarantine of the Mississippi. The freely accorded to the citizens. Tried in better times, and as a move commissioners of the port are officials of the state. Owing to ment for reform sprung from the people and not due primarily to an the complete dominance of the Democratic party, all reform external impulse, this system might have been permanent and might movements in politics must come from within that organization. have exercised great influence on other cities. The early 'seventies were marked by a great widening of the city's corporate limits. Reform organizations have been intermittently powerful since In 1882 another charter went back to the ordinary American plan 1888, and among their achievements for good were the beginning of elective district councillors chosen for the legislative branch, of the great drainage and sewerage improvements and the and executive officers chosen on a general ticket. The latter held adoption of the charter of 1896. The present government of seats in the council and could debate but not vote. This is the the city compares very favourably with systems tried in the past, present system. They were leased to a private company in 1891-1901, but the The charter of 1805 organized the old cité (the Vieux Carrelease was unprofitable and was disadvantageous to trade. From and the faubourgs as distinct municipalities with almost wholly 1901 to 1908 wharfage and harbour ducs were reduced 25 to 85%

issues.

cities of the United States. This high death-rate is often attri- | and great development characterized especially the decade buted in great part to the large negro population, among whom the 1830-1840. The introduction of gas (about 1830); the building mortality in 1900 was 42-1 per 1000; but the negro population of the New Orleans and Pontchartrain railway (1820-1830), one largely comprises that labouring element whose faulty provision for health and sickness in every large city swells the death-rate. A of the earliest in the United States; the introduction of the first light yellow-fever epidemic occurred in 1897-1898-1899, after nine- steam cotton press (1832), and the beginning of the public school teen years of immunity, and a more serious one in 1905, when the United States Marine Hospital Service for a time took control of system (1840) marked these years; foreign exports more than the city's sanitation and attempted to exterminate the Stegomyia doubled in the period 1831-1833. Travellers in this decade have mosquito. The city Board of Health has done much to secure pure left pictures of the animation of the river trade--more congested food for the people, and has exercised efficient oversight of com- in those days of river boats and steamers and ocean-sailing craft municable diseases, including yellow fever. In movements for the than to-day; of the institution of slavery, the quadroon balls, betterment of the city-in commerce, sanitation, public works and general enterprise-a leading part has been taken by an organization the medley of Latin tongues, the disorder and carousals of the of citizens known as the New Orleans Progressive Union, whose river-men and adventurers that filled the city. Altogether there charter and by-laws prohibit its participation in political and religious was much of the wildness of a frontier town, and a seemingly boundless promise of prosperity. The crisis of 1837, indeed, was History.-New Orleans was founded in 1718 by Jean Baptiste severely felt, but did not greatly retard the city's advancement, Lemoyne, Sieur de Bienville, and was named in honour of which continued unchecked until the Civil War. In 1849 the then Regent of France. The priest-chronicler Charlevoix Baton Rouge replaced New Orleans as the capital of the state. described it in 1721 as a place of a hundred wretched hovels in In 1850 telegraphic communication was established with St a malarious wet thicket of willows and dwarf palmettos, infested Louis and New York; in 1851 the New Orleans & Jackson by serpents and alligators; he seems to have been the first, railway, the first railway outlet northward, now part of the however, to predict for it an imperial future. In 1722 New Illinois Central, and in 1854 the western outlet, now the Southern Orleans was made the capital of the vast province of Louisiana Pacific, were begun. (q.v.). Much of the population in early days was of the wildest and, in part, of the most undesirable character-deported galley-slaves, trappers, gold-hunters and city scourings; and the governors' letters are full of complaints regarding the riffraff sent as soldiers as late as Kerlerec's administration (17531763). In 1788 a fire destroyed a large part of the city. In 1795-1796 the sugar industry was first put upon a firm basis. The last twenty years of the 18th century were especially characterized by the growth of commerce on the Mississippi, and the development of those international interests, commercial and political, of which New Orleans was the centre. The year 1803 is memorable for the actual transfer (at New Orleans) of Louisiana to France, and the establishment of American dominion. At this time the city had about i0,000 inhabitants, mostly French creoles and their slaves. The next dozen years were marked by the beginnings of self-government in city and state; by the excitement attending the Aaron Burr conspiracy (in the course of which, in 1806-1807, General James Wilkinson practically put New Orleans under martial law); by the immigration from Cuba of French planters; and by the American War of 1812.

In 1815 New Orleans was attacked by a conjunct expedition of British naval and military forces from Halifax, N.S., and other points. The American government managed to obtain early information of the enterprise and prepared to meet it with forces (regular and militia) under Maj.-Gen. Andrew Jackson. The British advance was made by way of Lake Borgne, and the troops landed at a fisherman's village on the 23rd of December 1814, Major-General Sir E. Pakenham taking command there on the 25th. An immediate advance on the still insufficiently prepared defences of the Americans might have led to the capture of the city, but this was not attempted, and both sides remained inactive for some time awaiting reinforcements. At last in the early morning of the 8th of January 1815 (after the Treaty of Ghent had been signed) a direct attack was made on the now strongly entrenched line of the defenders at Chalmette, near the Mississippi river. It failed disastrously with a loss of 2000 out of 9000 British troops engaged, among the dead being Pakenham and Major-General Gibbs. The expedition was soon afterwards abandoned and the troops embarked for England. From this time to the outbreak of the American Civil War the city annals are almost wholly commercial. Hopeful activity 1 But the death-rate of New Orleans was not so high as that of some smaller Southern cities, Richmond (29-7), Savannah (34-3) or Charleston (37-5), for example. According to Mortality Statistics, 1905 (Washington, 1907), the death-rate in New Orleans in 1905 was 23.7. and the annual average between 1900 and 1904 was 23:1.

2 Two of the lakes in the vicinity commemorate respectively Louis Phelypeaux, Count Pontchartrain, minister and chancellor of France, and Jean Frederic Phelypeaux, Count Maurepas, minister and secretary of state; a third is really a landlocked inlet of the sea, " or and its name (Lake Borgne) has reference to its "incomplete "defective" character.

The political and commercial importance of New Orleans, as well as its strategic position, marked it out as the objective of a Union expedition soon after the opening of the Civil War. Captain D. G. Farragut (q.v.) was selected by the Union government for the command of the Western Gulf squadron in January 1862. The four heavy ships of the squadron (none of them armoured) were with many difficulties brought up to the head of the passes, and around them assembled nineteen smaller vessels (mostly gunboats) and a flotilla of twenty mortar-boats under Commander D. D. Porter (q.v.). The main defences of the Mississippi consisted of the two permanent forts Jackson and St Philip. These were of masonry and brick construction, armed with heavy rifled guns as well as smooth-bores, and placed on either bank so as to command long reaches of the river and the surrounding flats. In addition, the Confederates had some improvised ironclads and gunboats, large and small. On the 16th of April, after elaborate reconnaissances, the Union fleet steamed up into position below the forts, and on the 18th the mortar-boats opened fire. Their shells fell with great accuracy, and although one of the boats was sunk and two disabled, fort Jackson was seriously damaged. But the defences were by no means crippled even after a second bombardment on the 19th, and a formidable obstacle to the advance of the Union main fleet was a boom between the forts designed to detain the ships under close fire should they attempt to run past. At that time the eternal duel of ship versus fort seemed to have been settled in favour of the latter, and it was well for the Union government that it had placed its ablest and most resolute officer at the head of the squadron. Gunboats were repeatedly sent up at night to endeavour to destroy the boom, and the bombardment went on, disabling only a few guns but keeping the gunners of fort Jackson under cover. At last the gunboats "Pinola " and " Itasca " ran in and broke a gap in the boom, and at 2 A.M. on the 24th the fleet weighed, Farragut in the corvette "Hartford" leading. After a severe conflict at close quarters, with the forts and with the ironclads and fire rafts of the defence, almost all the Union fleet (except the mortar-boats) forced its way past. At noon on the 25th Farragut anchored in front of New Orleans; forts Jackson and St Philip, isolated and continuously bombarded by the mortarboats, surrendered on the 28th; and soon afterwards the military portion of the expedition occupied the city. The commander, General B. F. Butler, subjected New Orleans to a rigorous martial law so tactlessly administered as greatly to intensify the hostility of South and North, but his administration was in many respects beneficial to the city, which was kept both orderly and healthy. Towards the end of the war General N.P. Banks held the command at New Orleans.

Throughout the years of the Civil War and the Reconstruction period the history of the city is inseparable from that of the state. All the constitutional conventions were held here, the seat of

missionary villages were planted at Gnadenhütten (October 1772), Lichtenau (1776) and Salem (1780), all in the present county of Tuscarawas. After the massacre of Christian Indians at Gnadenhütten in 1782 the Indians removed to Michigan and in 1791 to Fairfield, Ontario; in 1798 some of them returned to Tuscarawas county and settled Goshen, where Zeisberger is buried. New Philadelphia was laid out in 1804 and was named by its founder, John Knisely, after Philadelphia in Pennsylvania; it was incorporated as a village in 1815, and was first chartered as a city in 1896.

See Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly for April 1909 (Columbus, Ohio) for several articles on the early settlement by Moravian Indians.

government again was here (in 1864-1882) and New Orleans | Johann Gottlieb Ernestus Heckewelder (1743-1823) other was the centre of dispute and organization in the struggle between the races for the control of government. Notable events of that struggle in city history were: the street riot of the 30th of July 1866, at the time of the meeting of the radical constitutional convention; and the "revolution" of the 14th of September 1874, when the White League worsted the Republican metropolitan police in pitched battle and forced the temporary flight of the Kellogg government. The latter was reinstated in power by the United States troops, and by the same power the Democrats were frustrated in January 1875, after they had wrested from the Republicans the organization of the state legislature. Nevertheless, the "revolution" of 1874 is generally regarded as the independence day of Reconstruction, although not until President Hayes withdrew the troops in 1877 and the Packard government fell did the Democrats actually hold control of the state and city. The financial condition of the city when the whites gained control was very bad. The tax-rate had risen in 1873 to 3%. The city defaulted in 1874 on the interest of its bonded debt, later refunding this ($22,000,000 in 1875) at a lower rate, so as to decrease the annual charge from $1,416,000 to $307,500. Among events in the decade 1880-1890 were the World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition of 1884-1885 (celebrating the centennial of the cotton industry of the country), and the introduction of electric lighting (1886); in the decade 1890-1900 the introduction of electric transit, the latest charter and the improvements in public works already detailed. The lynching of Italian subjects by a mob in 18911 caused serious international complications.

Among the many floods from which the city has suffered those of 1849 and 1882 were the most destructive.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-For description see the Historical Sketch Book and Guide to New Orleans...compiled by several leading writers of the New Orleans Press (New York, 1885); B. M. Norman, New Orleans and Environs (New Orleans, 1845); Grace King, New Orleans, the Place and the People (New York, 1895); and the novels and magazine writings of G. W. Cable. The Picayune publishes a guide, frequently revised. For administration, Manual of the City of New Orleans (periodical); W. W. Howe, "Municipal History of New Orleans," in Johns Hopkins University Studies, scries vii., No. 4 (Baltimore, 1889); for accounts of the worst of the yellow-fever epidemics, W. L. Robison's Diary of a Samaritan, by a member of the Howard Association of New Orleans (New York, 1860); Report of the Sanitary Commission of New Orleans on the Epidemic Yellow Fever of 1853 (New Orleans, 1854); and for much miscellaneous information, 10th Census of the United States (1880), Social Statistics of Cities. History and Present Condition of New Orleans... by G. E. Waring and G. W. Cable (Washington, 1881).

NEW PHILADELPHIA, a city and the county-seat of Tuscarawas county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Tuscarawas River and near the Ohio canal, about 75 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 4456; (1900) 6213 (554 foreign-born); (1910) 8542. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio (the Cleveland, Lorain & Wheeling Division), and the Pennsylvania (Cleveland & Pittsburgh Division) railways, and by an inter-urban electric system. The city has a level site in the midst of a good agricultural country, which abounds in coal and fire-clay. In the public square is a soldiers' monument, and the city has a public library and à park. Its principal manufactures are steel, enamelled ware, clay goods, brooms, flour and carriages. The first settlement in the vicinity was made in May 1772, when Moravian Indian converts migrated from Pennsylvania (Friedenshütten, Bradford county, and Friedenstadt, Lawrence county) to Schoenbrunn, called by the Indians Welhik-Tuppeek, a spring (now dry) a little south of the present New Philadelphia. Under David Zeisberger (1721-1808) and In October 1890 the chief of police was assassinated, and before he died charged the crime to Italians. He had been active in proceedings against certain Italians accused of crime, and his death was popularly attributed to the Mafia. Nineteen Sicilians were indicted, and of nine put on trial six were acquitted and three escaped conviction on the ground of a mis-trial. On the 14th of March 1891 a mpb broke into the jail and lynched eleven of the accused. The Italian government demanded that the lynchers should be punished, entered claims for indemnity in the case of the three Sicilians who had been Italian subjects, and, failing to secure as prompt an answer as it desired, withdrew its ambassador from Washington. In 1892 the United States paid an indemnity of $25,000 to Italy.

NEW PLYMOUTH, a municipality and seaport on the west coast of North Island, New Zealand, capital of the provincial district of Taranaki, 258 m. N.N.W. of Wellington by rail. Pop. (1906) 5141. The town slopes to the ocean, with a background of forest surmounted by the snow-clad volcanic cone of Mount Egmont (8270 ft.). The district is not unjustly termed "the garden of New Zealand." It is highly fertile, cereals and fruits growing well; and dairy products are extensively exported. In the town are leather-works, timber-works and flour-mills, with freezingworks for export dairy produce. The settlement was founded in 1841 by the Plymouth Company under the auspices of the New Zealand Company, and chiefly consisted of emigrants from Devonshire and Cornwall. On the seashore in the neighbourhood are extensive deposits of ironsand.

NEW POMERANIA (Ger. Neu-Pommern, formerly New Britain, native Birara), an island of the Bismarck Archipelago, N.E. of New Guinea in the Pacific Ocean, about 6° S., 150° E., in the administration of German New Guinea. It is crescentshaped, about 330 m. long, and, except where the Willaumez Peninsula projects northward, nowhere more than 60 m. wide. The north-eastern extremity consists of the broad, irregular Gazelle Peninsula, joined to the main mass by a narrow neck. The total area is about 9500 sq. m. The island is in great part unexplored. The coasts are in some parts precipitous; in others the mountains recede inland, and the coast is flat and bordered by coral reefs. The formation appears otherwise to be volcanic, and there are some active craters. The greatest elevation occurs towards the west-about 6500 ft. There is a rich tropical vegetation, and a number of considerable streams water the island. The chief centre is Herbertshöhe at the north of the Gazelle Peninsula; it is the seat of the governor of German New Guinea (see NEW GUINEA).

The natives are Melanesians, resembling their Papuan kinsmen of villages are clean and well kept. Unlike their Papuan relatives, the eastern New Guinea, and are a powerful well-formed race. Their islanders are unskilled in carving and pottery, but are clever farmers and fishermen, constructing ingenious fishing weirs. They have a fixed monetary system consisting of strings of cowries. They pershark's tooth. The common dead are buried or exposed to sharks form complicated surgical operations with an obsidian knife or a on the reefs; bodies of chiefs are exposed in the fork of a tree. Justice is executed, and taboos, feasts, taxes, &c., arranged by a mysterious disguised figure, the duk-duk. The population is divided into two exogamous classes. The children belong to the class of the mother, and when the father dies go to her village for support, the land and fruit trees in each district being divided between the two classes. There are several dialects, the construction resembling Fijian, as in the pronominal suffixes in singular, triad and plural; the numerals, however, are Polynesian in character.

NEWPORT, a market town and municipal borough, the chief town of the Isle of Wight, England. Pop. (1901) 10,911. It is situated near the centre of the island, at the head of the navigation of the Medina River, 5 m. S. from its mouth at Cowes. It is the chief centre of the railway system of the island. The church of St Thomas of Canterbury, rebuilt in 1854 in the Decorated style, contains many interesting old monuments; and one by Marochetti to the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Charles I., erected by Queen Victoria. The guildhall, erected in 1816 from the designs of Nash, includes the town-hall in the upper story with the market-place below. There are a corn exchange and museum. The grammar school (the scene of

negotiations between Charles I. and the parliament) was founded in 1612, and there is a blue-coat school for girls founded in 1761. The Albany barracks and Parkhurst prison lie north of the town. A considerable trade is carried on in timber, malt, wheat and flour. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area 504 acres.

It is supposed that Newport (Neuport) was a Roman settlement, then known as Medina. There are no traces of Saxon occupation, and no evidence that Newport became a borough before the reign of Henry II., though it was probably used before that time as a port of entrance for the ancient capital of Carisbrooke. The first charter was granted by Richard de Redvers between 1177 and 1184, freeing the burgesses from tolls throughout the island, from hundred suits, and from being impleaded without the walls, and giving them permission to choose their own reeve-privileges for which they paid 18 marks yearly. These grants, repeated and extended by the countess Isabel de Fortibus, were confirmed in 1349 by Edward III. and afterwards by successive kings, Henry VII. in 1489 granting in addition the petty customs within all ports and creeks of the island. The borough was incorporated by James I. in 1607, and a second charter of incorporation granted by Charles I. in 1637 is that by which Newport was governed until 1835. It was represented in parliament in 1295, but no return was made from that time until 1584, from which date it regularly sent two members. In 1867 the number was reduced to one, and in 1885 its representation was merged in that of the island. A fair was formerly held on Whit-Monday and the two following days, and on the three Saturdays nearest Whitsuntide, known as " Bargain Saturdays," there was a hiring fair for servants. There is now no fair. The Saturday market dates from 1184, and there is a Wednesday cattle market. Owing to its facilities for trade, Newport early superseded Carisbrooke as the capital of the island. Its prosperity in medieval times depended upon its harbour dues and its oyster beds in the river Medina.

NEWPORT, a municipal and county borough, contributory parliamentary borough, seaport and market town in the Monmouth parliamentary division of boroughs, Monmouthshire, England, on the Usk, 5 m. from its confluence with the Severn, and 133 m. W. of London by the Great Western railway.❘ Pop. (1891) 54,707; (1901) 67,270. It lies chiefly on the right (west) bank of the river, and on the E., N. and W. it is sheltered by a line of lofty hills. The old parish church of St Woollos stands finely on Stow Hill. Originally it consisted only of the present nave, a fine specimen of grand though unadorned Norman architecture; but a massive square tower (of the time of Henry III.) and a chancel were subsequently added; a large western Early English lady-chapel is interposed between the nave and the tower. The old castle, built about 1130 by Robert, earl of Gloucester, was greatly altered in the late Perpendicular period. The remains include two towers and the river frontage. The old Dominican monastery is entirely rebuilt and occupied as a private residence; but there are a few fragments of a house of White Friars. The principal public buildings are the spacious Victoria Hall, the Albert Hall, the town-hall, county council offices, market-house, custom-house, and museum and art gallery. Newport owes a rapid increase in importance to its situation on a deep and spacious tidal river, which renders it a convenient outlet for the trade of a rich mineral district. It has extensive docks and wharves, to which large steamers have access at all tides. Three docks, the Alexandra, South and Old Docks, had together a water area of about 60 acres, besides the Alexandra graving dock and dry docks. But additional accommodation was found necessary. In 1905 the Alexandra Docks and Railway company let the contract for the extension of the docks by 50 acres of water area, and the scheme was enlarged later so as to afford an additional area of 86 acres in all. The new works, added to the old Alexandra Dock, give a total deep-water area of over 130 acres. The first part to be completed (48 acres) was filled in the autumn of 1907. The river is crossed by a transporter bridge, opened in 1906, and baving a span of 645 ft. and a clear headway from high water

of 177 ft., with a travelling truck worked by electricity. Iron ore, pig iron, timber and grain are among the chief imports, while coal and iron goods are exported. Besides the Great Western railway, Newport is served by the London and NorthWestern, the Rhymney, and the Brecon & Merthyr systems. The town possesses large iron foundries and engineering works, and among other industries are the manufacture of wagons and wheels, nails, bolts and wire, shipbuilding and the making of railway plant, chemical manures and agricultural implements. There are also large breweries, glass and pottery works, and an extensive cattle market. Newport gives name to a Roman Catholic bishopric, but the cathedral church is at Belmont near Hereford. With Monmouth and Usk, Newport returns one member to parliament. In 1889 Maindee, a populous suburb on the left bank of the Usk, was incorporated with Newport, and constitutes one of its five wards. The town is governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area 4431 acres. Newport, an ancient mesne borough and castle, occupied an important position on the Welsh marches. The town, which is not mentioned in Domesday, grew up round the castle built early in the 12th century. Giraldus Cambrensis, writing in 1187, calls it Novus Burgus, probably to distinguish it from Caerleon, whose prosperity declined as that of Newport increased. The first lord was Robert Fitz Hamon, who died in 1107, and from him the lordship passed to the earls of Gloucester and Stafford and the dukes of Buckingham. Hugh le Despenser, who held the lordship for a short time, obtained in 1323 a charter of liberties for the burgesses, granting them freedom from toll throughout England, Ireland and Aquitaine. The earl of Stafford granted a further charter in 1385, confirmed by his grandson in 1427, which gave the burgesses the right of selfgovernment and of a merchant gild. On the attainder of the duke of Buckingham in 1483 the lordship lapsed to the crown, of whom it was held in the 16th and 17th centuries by the Pembrokes, and in the 19th by the Beauforts. The town was incorporated by charter of James I. in 1624 under the title of "Mayor and Bailiffs." This charter was confirmed by Charles II. in 1685 and holds force at the present day. By the act of 1535-1536 Newport is entitled as an ancient borough to take part in the election of a member for Monmouth town. The commercial importance of the town dates only from the second half of the 19th century, the Old Dock being partially formed in 1842, while the Alexandra was opened in 1875. In 1801 the population of the town was only 1135. In 1385 the borough obtained a market lasting fifteen days from the vigil of St Lawrence (August 10). The charter of 1624 granted two fairs, one on the feast of the Ascension, and a second (still held) on St Leonard's day (November 6). Newport was the scene of a serious Chartist riot in 1839.

NEWPORT, a market town in the Newport parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, 145 m. N.W. from London on the Stafford-Shrewsbury joint line of the London & NorthWestern and Great Western railways, and on the Shrewsbury canal. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3241. The church of St Nicholas is Early English and Perpendicular. There is an ancient market cross, greatly decayed. Newport possesses a literary institute, and a free grammar school founded in 1665. Four miles S. are the beautiful ruins of Lilleshall abbey, including a fine Norman west door and part of the front, considerable remains of the church besides, and traces of domestic buildings. The abbey was founded in 1145, under charter from King Stephen, by Richard de Baumes or Belmeis, dean of St Alkmund, Shrewsbury, for Augustinian canons, who were brought from Dorchester Abbey, Oxfordshire. Ironstone, coal and limestone are worked in the parish.

Newport is not mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but at the time of the Conquest formed part of the manor of Edgmond, which William I. gave with the rest of the county of Shropshire to Roger, earl of Shrewsbury. Henry I. is supposed to have founded the borough, at first called New Borough, after the manor had come into his hands through the forfeiture of Robert de Belesme. The site was probably chosen partly on