the fastest rotary presses. The field of political caricature had heretofore belonged exclusively to the weekly papers, but the great dailies now seized upon it, and commanded the service of the cleverest caricaturists. Newspapers found a way to put the "half-tone" etching of a photograph, such as had heretofore been printed only on slow flat presses, bodily into the stereotype plate for the great quadruple and octuple presses; and thereafter portraits and photographs of important groups on notable occasions began to appear, embodied in the text describing the occurrences, a few hours after the camera had been turned on them, in papers printed at the rate of thirty and forty thousand an hour. In this development of illustrated daily journalism America rapidly went far beyond other countries. News agencies multiplied and gave cheaper service. The New York Associated Press had been the chief agency for the whole country. It admitted new customers with great caution, and its refusal to admit was almost prohibitory, while its withdrawal of news from established papers was practically fatal. It was owned by the leading New York journals. Their disagreements led to the success of a rival, the United Press. The New York Associated Press finally dissolved, most of the New York members became connected with the United Press, and many of their Western and Southern clients organized the Associated Press of Illinois, more nearly on a mutual plan. The United Press finally failed, and most of its New York members went into the Associated Press of Illinois, which in turn was forced into plans for reorganization by decisions of Illinois courts against its rules for confining its services to its own members. One result of these successive changes was to encourage new papers by making it easy for them to secure a comprehensive news service, and thus to threaten the value of the old papers. Another was the struggle to increase the volume of the service, leading to reports of multitudes of occurrences formerly left without notice in the great news centres, and extension of agencies into the remotest hamlets, and less scrupulous care in the consideration and preparation of the reports filed at many points for transmission. News syndicates for special purposes also developed, as well as small news associations, sometimes with a service sufficient for the wants of many papers. The almost official authenticity which the public formerly attributed to an Associated Press despatch measurably declined; and the dailies found more difficulty in sifting and deciding upon the news that came to them, and incurred more individual responsibility for what they printed. The great accumulation of private fortunes also changed the newspapers. Millionaires came to think it advantageous to own newspapers, openly or secretly, which could be conducted without reference to direct profits, for the sake primarily of political, social or business considerations. To secure large circulations for such enterprises they were willing to sell the paper for long periods at much below the cost of manufacture, and to spend money for news and writers more lavishly than the legitimate business of established journals would allow. Great business corporations seeking for favourable or fearing adverse legislation sometimes made secret newspaper investments for the same purpose. These various new conditions, affecting the newspaper press of the United States with ever-increasing force, gradually changed the average character of the papers and their effect upon their readers. A large circulation became the only evidence of success and the only way to make the sale of a newspaper below cost ultimately a source of profit. A disposition to lower the character in order to catch the largest audience naturally followed. Criminal news was reported more fully than formerly, with more piquant details. Competitors outdid each other in the effort to treat all news with unprecedented sensationalism. The lowest possible price was regarded as essential to the largest possible circulation, and so a favourite price even for large newspapers became one cent to the public, and consequently only half a cent to the publishers, whose business was practically all at wholesale with dealers and news companies. The feeling that the most must be given for the money prompted also the great increase in size, only made possible by the reductions in paper, composition, press work, &c., already noted. Yet mere quantity and mere sensation after a time palled on the jaded appetite, and the spice of intense personality became necessary. As most people like to see their names in print, and can bear criticism of their neighbours with composure, these two chords of human nature were incessantly played upon. papers. The principal feature in the development of modern newspapers is the importance attached to obtaining, and prominently displaying, "news" of all sorts, and incidentally Charac there has been a considerable change of view as to what teristics sort of news should be given prominence. Sport and of modern finance are treated at greater length and more popu- newslarly; and, partly owing to the largely increased number of papers and consequent greater competition, partly to a desire to appeal to the larger public, which is now able to read and ready to buy reading-matter, there has been a tendency to follow the tastes of the vast number of people who can read at all rather than of those to whom reading means a very high standard of literary and intellectual enjoyment. This has involved a more popular form of presenting news, not only in a less literary style and by the presentation of "tit-bits" of information with an appeal to cruder sentiments, but also in a more liberal use of headlines and of similar devices for catching the eye of the reader. "Personal journalism," i.c. paragraphs about the private life or personal appearance of individualseither men or women-of note or notoriety in society or public affairs, has become far more marked; and in this respect, as in many others, encouragement has been given to a spirit of inquisitiveness, and also to a widespread inclination either to flatter or be oneself flattered, the latter desire being indeed conspicuously prevalent in these "democratic days" even among the classes which once affected to despise such publicity. The modern impulse, culminating in England in the last decade of the 19th century in what was then called the "New Journalism," was a direct product of American conditions and ways of life, but in Great Britain it was also the result of the democratic movement produced by the Education Act of 1870 and the Reform Act of 1885; and it affected more or less all countries which came within the influence of free institutions. The most generally adopted American innovation (for, though not known before even in England, it was practically a new thing as carried out in American newspapers) was the "interview (the report in dialogue form of a conversation with some prominent person, whose views were thus elicited by a reporter), which during the early 'nineties was taken up in varying degrees by English newspapers; it was "cheap copy "-the word copy" covering in journalistic slang any matter in the shape of an article--and could easily be made both informing and interesting; and "interviewing" caused a large increase in the journalistic profession, notably among women. The rage for the "interview "again declined in vogue outside American journalism in proportion as people of importance became less ready to talk for publication-or for nothing. From the highest class of paper downwards, however, real news-and especially early news-has been more and more sought after, and all the force of organization both within individual newspaper offices and outside them in the shape of news agencies, has been applied to the purpose of obtaining early news and publishing it as quickly as possible. In this matter the Press has certainly been helped most materially not only by the advance in telegraphic facilities (see REPORTING) but by all the other new rapid methods of production in Typesetting (see TYPOGRAPHY) and Press-work (see PRINTING) which have been the feature of the modern period. The vastly increased amount of telegraphic work now done has perhaps not been all pure gain to the best sort of journalism. It has to some extent weakened the effect of the considered article, and led to hasty conciusions and precipitate publication, with results that sometimes cannot be compensated for by any later contradiction or modification. In some cases a reaction ensued. Take for instance the case of war correspondence. The prestige of the "6 war correspondent" became at one time enormous, and his evolution from the days of H. Crabb Robinson, who wrote to The Times from Spain in 1807-1809, has been traced by busy pens with all the precision of a special interest in history. Certainly nothing finer in active English journalism was ever done than in W. H. Russell's letters to The Times from the Crimea, or the work of Archibald Forbes and others in the FrancoPrussian War; but more recently, although first-rate abilities have been forthcoming, the news agencies, often favoured by the military Press censor, have generally been ahead of the " specials," and the individual work that might have been done for isolated papers has been much hampered by restrictions. This is due partly to the increased competition, partly to military jealousy and officialism, partly to the vital importance of secrecy in modern warfare: but the result has been to a considerable extent to reduce the value of the war correspondent as compared with what was done in the Press in the days of Russell and Forbes. A letter arriving weeks after the telegraphic account, however meagre, is largely shorn of its interest. Given a brilliant foreign correspondent, the form of letters sent home from abroad on general subjects is still, no doubt, very effective. But the telegram is necessarily the backbone of the news service of the daily paper. The Press, be it added, is frequently able to acquaint the public with what is going on while a government itself is still uninformed. The work of officials and statesmen is admittedly increased and sometimes embarrassed by the new strain imposed upon them in consequence, but the public are on the whole well served by their emancipation from the obscurity of purely official intelligence and by the obligation of straightforward dealing imposed upon governments, which in their nature are apt to be secretive. Connected with the increased attention given to news is the greater vogue of the newspaper "poster " or contents-bill, which is exhibited in the streets. The poster has acquired commercial importance for indicating the possession of some special news without revealing its whole nature, and the tendency has been to have fewer lines and fewer words in larger type, in order to catch the eye more impressively. Rotary machines for printing these posters enable them to be turned out with greater rapidity; and in the case especially of evening papers it is possible at any time during the afternoon, should important news arrive, to issue a new poster and thus secure a large street sale by the insertion of a few words only in the " stop press or "fudge" without the necessity of changes in the plates. The catch-penny style of the poster has transferred itself also to the newspaper itself, in the shape of the "scare" headlines. And there has been a tendency for the news to be so displayed". in the headlines as to make any further reading unnecessary. Apart from the publication of "news" and reports, and occasional original articles of a descriptive and miscellaneous character, the chief function of a newspaper is criticism, whether of politics or other topics of the moment, or of the drama, art, music, books, sport or finance. As regards sport, the comments of the various newspapers are mainly descriptive; but a prominent feature in the United Kingdom has been the attention paid to 'tipping" probable winners on the Turf, and the insertion of betting news. The publication of the "odds "some time before a race, and of starting-prices, undoubtedly helped to foster the increase of this form of gambling, as was pointed out in the report of the Select Committee on Gambling in England in 1902, but the efforts to induce the English newspapers to keep such matter out of their columns have not had much success. The Daily News (London) in 1902 started on a new proprietorship under Mr Cadbury with a declared policy of not referring to horseracing or betting; but when its principal proprietors in 1909 became largely concerned also in the Star and Morning Leader, they were apparently content to retain the "tipster" elements which bulked large in them, and this inconsistency aroused considerable comment. The sporting interest (i.e. the desire to know results of racing and cricket, &c.) largely inflates the circulation of most of the London and provincial halfpenny evening papers. Between about 1870 and 1880 the English newspapers began to pay increased attention to literary and artistic criticism; and gradually the daily Press, which formerly applied itself mainly to recording news, and to political, social and financial subjects, became a formidable rival in this sphere to the weekly reviews and the monthly and quarterly magazines. Books are "reviewed" in the Press partly for literary reasons, partly as a quid pro quo for publishers' advertisements; and the desire for 'something to quote," irrespectively of the responsible nature of the criticism, became in the early 'nineties a mania with publishers, who in general appear to have considered that their sales depended upon their catching a public which would be satisfied by seeing in the advertisement that such and such a book was pronounced by such and such a paper to be "indispensable to any gentleman's library." Unfortunately the enormous output of books made it impossible for editors to have them all reviewed, and equally impossible for them to be certain of discriminating properly between those which were really worth reviewing or not. The result has been that the work of bookreviewing in the newspapers is often hastily and poorly or very spasmodically done. But there have been some honourable exceptions. The "Literary Supplement" (since 1901) to The Times is the most ambitious attempt made by any daily paper to deal seriously with literature. The Daily Chronicle started a "literary page " in 1891, and it was imitated in varying degrees by other English papers. The Scotsman and some other provincial papers have also for some time devoted much space to excellent literary criticism. The "literary supplement " has also been developed to excellent effect in some journals in the United States, such as the New York Times, where this feature was indeed originally started. As a form of serious criticism, however, the review has, in the general newspapers of later years, taken a lower place than must be desirable, partly owing to the cause named, partly to a tendency among reviewers either to indiscriminate praise or to irresponsible irrelevance, partly to a suspicion of "log-rolling "; and to a large extent it has become the practice merely to treat the appearance of new books as so much news, to be chronicled, with or without extracts, according as the subject makes good "copy," like any other event of the day. The modern tendency, resulting from the enormous amount of newspaper production, has been to make journalism less literary and at the same time literature more journalistic. Either as reviewers, leader-writers or editors, many of the principal "men of letters" have worked for longer or shorter periods as writers for some newspaper or other, and much of the published literature of the time has appeared originally in the columns of the newspapers, in the form of essays, poems, short stories or novels (in serial form). Publication in this shape has many advantages for an author besides that of additional remuneration; it offers an opportunity for a new writer to try his wings, and it helps to introduce him at once to a large public. Moreover, the newspapers read by the educated classes profit by the superior class of journalist represented by writers of a literary turn. But the increased popularity of the newspaper, and the close tie between it and the literary world, have on the whole impressed a journalistic stamp upon much of the literature of the day. However popular at the moment a writer may be, the infection with journalistic methods-while rightly employed by journalists, as such, in dealing with contemporary events and for strictly contemporary purposes-is apt to be responsible for something wanting in his work, the loss of which deprives him of the. permanent literary or scientific rank to which he might otherwise aspire. The new point of departure for the more popular style of English journalism (apart from the influence of American models) is really to be found in the publication of Sir George (then Mr) Newnes's Tit-Bits in 1881. This penny weekly paper, with its appeal to the masses, who liked to read snippets of information brightly put together, showed what enormous profits were to be made by this style of enterprise; and the multiplication of journals of this description-notably Mr Most people probably read more papers than is compatible with a healthy mental digestion, but the Press, as such, has to-day an enormous-and none the less real because subtleinfluence; and this is largely due to the reputation maintained by its higher representatives. While, individually, the great papers wield considerable influence, due partly to real sagacity and authority, partly to the psychological effect produced by mere print or by reiterated statement, collectively the Press now represents the Public, and expresses popular opinion more directly than any representative assembly. The multiplication of "Press-cutting agencies," and of such essentially "newsy " publications as Who's Who (the English form of which originated with Mr Douglas Sladen in 1897) and similar biographical reference books-all tending to increase the publicity of modern life-has contributed materially to the pervading influence of journalism in everyday life and the constant dependence of society in most of its manifestations on the activity of the "Fourth Estate." (H. CH.) Alfred Harmsworth's (Lord Northcliffe's) Answers (1888) and | Press for reporting the news of the day, the resources of no Mr C. Arthur Pearson's Pearson's Weekly (1890)—had a further newspaper staff are great enough to cover an area of information influence on public taste, so that even the classes above that as large as that represented by its readers; and the value of which primarily enjoyed these publications were affected in the outlet for opinion and information afforded by the correthe same direction. A new note was thus introduced into spondence columns cannot be overstated. English daily journalism in England. Whereas before 1885 the chief feature in London journalism, outside The Times and other great morning papers, had been the literary brilliance of the Saturday Review and its evening paper analogues, the Pall Mall and St James's Gazettes, in the early 'nineties came a craze for "actuality." Mr T. P. O'Connor, with his vivid pen (first in the Star, then in the Sunday Sun and elsewhere), set the pace for a crowd of imitators; the successful establishment of the Daily Mail in 1896, with its system of compressing the news of the day briefly and pointedly into short paragraphs, while at the same time catering for all tastes and employing first-rate correspondents and reporters to supply it with special information, gave a distinct shake-up to the older traditions of daily journalism. The old tendency had been to rely for success either on writers of exceptional knowledge or capacity, men who were essentially amateurs, or on a class of professional journalists who at all events had a literary tradition behind them. A different sort of amateur now arose, and a different sort of professional. Even when an attempt was made to provide for a literary public, success came to be generally sought by popular rather than by literary methods. The literary public in the proper sense of the word is inevitably a small one, and the greater part of the Press deals with literature on lines more suited to a larger and less refined clientèle. It may be claimed, no doubt, that the best sort of journalism shows a high, and sometimes the highest, literary standard, but the fact remains that for the bulk of modern journalism its conductors realize only too well that their business is to appeal to the masses, and to a standard of education and taste which falls far short of anything that can be called intellectual. It is often said that the leading articles or "editorials," expressing the attitude of the paper towards important subjects of the day, have lost their importance, but this is only a halftruth. Allowance being made for changes in literary style, the actual amount of good writing in this department in the great organs of opinion-well-informed, scholarly and incisivemay justly be considered equal to anything done in what are sometimes considered its palmy days. On the other hand, it is undoubtedly the case that in the newer type of newspaper, which appeals rather on the score of its tit-bits of news and rapid readableness to a more casual and less serious public, the whole raison d'être of the old-fashioned leading article has disappeared, and its place is taken by a few brief notes, merely indicating the attitude of the paper, and not seeking to discuss any subject comprehensively at all. The "leader" is to some extent a form of newspaper routine, but on the whole it is a routine which has proved its value by experience. The continuous high standard of tone, maintained by so many great journals, depends more largely than is sometimes realized on the regular industry and skill of those whose business it is to discuss the latest developments of affairs every day or every week in a manner which gives reasonable men something fresh to think about, or interprets for them the thoughts which are only vaguely floating in their minds. The liberty of the Press enables every sort of view, right or wrong, to be discussed in this prominent form, and thus every aspect of a question is brought out in public, to be accepted or rejected according to the weight of evidence and of argument. The same end is assisted by the devotion of so much space to "letters to the editor." It is sometimes said that in England the London Times owes its position largely to the fact that if any individual grievance is felt it is generally ventilated by a letter to The Times. Whatever may be the organization of the 1 It must be remembered that the style of public speeches has also altered. Nobody thinks of quoting the classics nowadays in the House of Commons. A more business-like form of speech is adopted in public life, and the Press reflects this change. Price of news papers. From the introduction of low rates for telegraphy and from the increase of mechanical methods of production, and of the desire to read and the growth of advertising (see ADVERTISEMENT), the modern low-priced newspaper has resulted. But it is by no means a recent development merely. In France, Theophrastus Renaudot's Gazette de Paris (1631) was started at the price of six centimes. In England we find the first mention of inexpensive news-sheets towards the close of the 17th century, when a number of halfpenny and farthing Posts sprang into existence, and appeared at more or less irregular intervals. These consisted of small leaflets, containing a few items of news-sometimes accompanied by advertisements-and were commonly sold in the streets by hawkers. The rise in cost was really due to artificial causes. The increase of these newspapers, and especially the growing practice of inserting advertisements, led the legislature to contemplate a stamp tax of a penny per sheet on all news publications. As a protest, a curious pamphlet-of which a copy is preserved in the British Museum-was issued in 1701, and it sheds an interesting light upon this early phase of cheap journalism. The pamphlet is entitled Reasons humbly offered to the Parliament on behalf of several persons concerned in the papermaking, printing and publishing of the halfpenny newspapers. It states that five master printers were engaged in the trade, which used 20,000 reams of paper per annum. The journals are described in the following terms: "The said newspapers have been always a whole sheet and a half, and sold for one halfpenny to the poorer sort of people, who are purchasers of it by reason of its cheapness, to divert themselves, and also to allure herewith their young children and entice them to reading; and should a duty of three halfpence be laid on these mean newspapers (which, by reason of the coarseness of the paper, the generality of gentlemen are above conversing with), it would utterly extinguish and suppress the same." The pamphlet goes on to say that hundreds of families, including a considerable number of blind people, were supported by selling the halfpenny journals in the streets. In 1712 a tax of a halfpenny per sheet was imposed, and the cheap newspapers at once ceased to exist. This tax on the press was increased from time to time, till in 1815 it stood at fourpence per sheet. The usual price of newspapers was then sevenpence a copy. From these facts it seems highly probable that, had not the stamp tax been imposed, the halfpenny paper would soon have become the normal type, and would have continued so to this day. In 1724 a committee of the House of Commons sat to consider the action of certain printers who were evading the stamp tax by publishing cheap newspapers under the guise of pamphlets. They found that there were then two Halfpenny Posts published in London, one by Read of Whitefriars. and the pamphlet that is to be seen in the British Museum, and in 1642 the first attempt to portray the House of Commons appeared in A Perfect Diurnall of the Passages in Parliament. In 1643 a pamphlet was published, called The Bloody Prince; or a Declaration of the Most Cruel Practices of Prince Rupert and the rest of the Cavaliers in fighting against God and the True Ministers of His Church. This contains a woodcut representation of Prince Rupert on his charger, one of the first attempts at providing the public with a portrait of a contemporary celebrity. Soon after this there appeared a journal, entitled Mercurius Civicus, which frequently gave illustrations, and, allowing for the Weekly News with its one attempt at an illustration above mentioned, must be counted the first illustrated paper. Mercurius Civicus, however, only gave portraits; it published Charles I. and his queen, Prince Rupert, Sir Thomas Fairfax and all the leading men on both sides in the Civil War. Perhaps the most interesting illustration of the next four years was that contained in a tract intended to evoke sympathy for the conCastle in 1648. There were many later attempts to depict the tragedy of Charles I.'s execution, and several woodcuts present to us also the execution of the regicides after Charles II. came to the throne. A broadside of the reign of the second Charles shows the Frost Fair on the Thames in 1683, and with a broadside describing Great Britain's Lamentations, or the Funeral Obsequies of that most incomparable Protestant Princess-Queen Mary, the wife of William III., in 1695-we close the illustrated journalism of the 17th century. The growth of the cheap newspaper has since been practically a simultaneous one throughout the civilized world. This has been notably the case in the United States, France and Great Britain. The general tendency in newspaper production, as in all other branches of industry, has in recent times been towards the lowering of prices while maintaining excellence of quality, experience having proved the advantage of large sales with a small margin of profit over a limited circulation with a higher rate of profit. The development-and indeed the possibility-of the cheap daily paper was due to a number of causes operating together during the latter half of the 19th century. Among these, the first place must undoubtedly be given to the cheapening of paper, through the introduction of wood pulp and the perfect-quered and captured king. It represented Charles in Carisbrooke ing of the machinery used in the manufacture. From 1875 to 1885 paper cheapened rapidly, and it has been estimated that the introduction of wood pulp trebled the circulation.of newspapers in England. Keen competition in the paper trade also did much to lower prices. At the same time the prime cost of newspaper production was increased by the introduction of improved machinery into the printing office. The growth of advertisements must also be taken into account in considering the evolution of the halfpenny journal. The income from this source alone made it possible to embark upon journalistic enterprises which would otherwise have been simply to court disaster. The popular journal of the present day does not, however, owe its existence and success merely to questions of diminished cost and improved methods of production. A change has come over the public mind. The modern reader likes his news in a brief, handy form, so that he can see at a glance the main facts without the task of reading through wordy articles. This is especially the case with the man of business, who desires to master the news of the past twenty-four hours as he travels to his office in the morning. It is to economize time rather than money that the modern reader would often prefer a halfpenny paper; while the man of leisure, who likes to peruse leading articles and full descriptivé accounts, finds what he needs in the more highly priced journals. The halfpenny paper in England has not had to contend with the opposition that the penny newspaper met from its threepenny contemporaries in the 'fifties and 'sixties. This is largely due to the fact that in most cases the contributors, paper, printing and general arrangement of the cheaper journal do not leave much room for criticism. Mr G. A. Sala once complained that the reporters of the older papers objected to work side by side with him when he represented the first penny London daily (the Daily Telegraph), through fear of losing caste, but this does not now apply, for in the United Kingdom, France and the United States the cheap journals, owing to their vast circulation, are able to offer the best rates of remuneration, and can thus command the services of some of the best men in all the various departments of journalism. (N.) Illustrated Curiously enough, the 18th century, so rich in journalistic enterprise and initiative so far as the printed page was concerned, did less than the previous century to illustrate news. In 1731, however, in the Grub Street Journal, there appeared the first illustration of the Lord Mayor's procession. In 1740 another journal, the Daily Post, gave an illustration of Admiral Vernon's attack on Porto Bello. The narrative was introduced by the editor with the information that the letter that he is printing is from a friend who witnessed the conflict between the English and the Spaniards. The writer of the letter, who must be put on record as the father of war correspondents, signed himself "William Richardson." There were some interesting efforts to illustrate magazines about this time. In the Gentleman's Magazine for 1746 there was a lengthy account of the famous rising of 1745, and a map was given of the country round Carlisle, showing the route of the Scottish rebels; and in the same volume there was a portrait of the duke of Cumberland. In 1747 the Gentleman's gave a bird's-eye view of the city of Genoa, illustrating the account of the insurrection there, and so on year by year there were further pictures. In 1751 an obituary notice was illustrated by a portrait of a certain Edward Bright of Maldon, Essex. Mr Bright died at the age of thirty, and his interest to the public was that he weighed 42 stones. There were a number of magazines besides the Gentleman's that came out about this time and continued well into the next century. In the Thespian Magazine for 1793, for example, there is an illustration of a new theatre at Birmingham. Then there were the English Magazine, the Macaroni Magazine, the Monstrous Magazine. Every one of these contained illustrations on copper, more or less topical. William Clement, the proprietor of the Observer, the first pioneer of illustrated journalism, although his ideals fell short in this particular, that he was never prepared to face the illustration of news systematically; he only attempted to illustrate events when there was a great crisis in public affairs. In 1818 Abraham Thornton, who was tried for murder, appealed to the wager of battle, which after long arguments before judges was proved to be still in accordance with statute law, and he escaped hanging in consequence. Thornton's portrait appeared in the Observer. Clement owned for some time Bell's Life and the Morning Chronicle. All his journals contained occasional topical illustrations. The Observer's illustration of the house where the Cato Street conspirators met is really sufficiently Another aspect of the newspaper which may here be considered is the introduction of pictorial illustrations (see also ILLUSTRATION). The earliest attempts at popular illustration of news events took the form in England of "broad-number of which was published in 1791, was the first real papers. sides." One broadside dated 1587 recounted the Valiant Exploits of Sir Francis Drake; another dated 1607 gave an account of A wonderful flood in Somersetshire and Norfolk. The series of murder broadsides which lasted almost to our own time commenced in 1613 with one that gave an account of the murder of Mr William Storre, a clergyman of Market Rasen, in Lincolnshire, by Francis Cartwright. Early in the reign of Charles I. there appeared a broadside which described a fall of meteors in Berkshire. A little later-in 1683-the Weekly News came out with the picture of an island which was supposed to have risen from the sea on the French coast. The execution of Strafford in 1641 was made the subject of a picture manufacture of what are known as half-tone blocks. It was in 1890 that the application of photography to illustrated journalism began in England, and by 1910 it had grown to enormous dimensions, but the first newspaper photographs (mainly portraits) had to be engraved on wood, although the use of halftone came in well-nigh simultaneously. Up to 1890 illustrated journalism was in the hands of the artists, and the artists were in the hands of the wood engravers, who reproduced their work sometimes effectively-often inefficiently. But in the course of twenty years the wood engraver had been utterly superseded so far as illustrated journalism was concerned. The further developments of journalism seemed likely to be entirely in the direction of coloured reproductions, block-making and machinery for facilitating their production having made particularly rapid strides. (C. K. S.) elaborate for a journal of to-day, and in 1820 it gave its readers | to the ever-increasing cheapening and ever-growing celerity of "A Faithful Reproduction of the Interior of the House of Lords as prepared for the Trial of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Caroline." In 1821 it published an interior of the House of Commons with the members in their places. The Observer of 22nd July 1821-the Coronation number-contained four engravings. Of the George IV. Coronation number Mr Clement sold 60,000 copies, but even that was nothing to the popularity that this journal secured by its illustrations of the once famous murder of Mr Weare and the trial of the murderer Thurtell. The Observer in 1838 gave a picture of the Coronation of Queen Victoria. In 1841 there was a fire at the Tower of London, when the armoury was destroyed. The Observer published three illustrations of the fire; it further published an emblematic engraving on the birth of the prince of Wales, and issued a large page engraving of the christening ceremony in the following January. Thus it had in it all the elements of pictorial journalism as we know it to-day. The weekly Illustrated London News was, however, the first illustrated newspaper by virtue of its regularity. It was the first illustrated paper, because all the illustrations to which we have referred as appearing in the Observer and other publications were irregular. They came at intervals; they were quite subordinate to the letterpress of the paper; they were given only occasionally in times of excitement, with a view to promoting some little extra sale. That they did not really achieve the result hoped for to any great extent may be gauged by the fact that from 1842 to 1847 the Observer published scarcely any illustrations at all, and in the meantime the Illustrated London News had taken an assured place as a journal devoted mainly to the illustration of news week by week. That is why its first publication marked an epoch in journalism. The casual illustration of other journals still went on: the Weekly Chronicle, for example, still published a number of pictures; the Sunday Times, also a very old paper, illustrated in these early days many topical subjects. In 1834, indeed, it pictured the ruins of the House of Commons, when that building was burned down. A paper started in 1837 called the Magnet gave illustrations, one of them of the removal from St Helena and delivery of the remains of the emperor Napoleon to the prince de Joinville in 1840. The first number of the Illustrated London News appeared on 14th May 1842. Its founder was Herbert Ingram (1811-1860), who was born in Boston, Lincolnshire, and started life amid the most humble surroundings, what education he ever received having been secured at the free school of his native town. Apprenticed at fourteen to a printer in Hull, he later settled in Nottingham as a printer and newsagent in a small way. It was during his career as a newsvendor at Nottingham that he was seized with the belief that it was possible to produce a paper entirely devoted to illustration of news. In the first number of the Illustrated London News, however, there was not a single picture that was drawn from actual sight, the factor which is the most essential element of the illustrated journalism of to-day. Sir John Gilbert (1817-1897), the artist, has stated that not one of the events depicted by him-a state ball at which the queen and the prince consort appeared, the queen with the young prince of Wales in her arms, and other incidental illustrationswas taken from life. The Illustrated London News had not been long in existence before there were many imitators, in America Harper's Weekly, in France L'Illustration and in Germany Über Land und Meer, and from that day there has been constant development, the Illustrated Zeitung of Leipzig being perhaps the most striking. In America the use of illustrations in the daily papers has become a regular feature, culminating in the bulky Sunday editions of the principal journals; and the practice of presenting the news in pictorial form has increased continuously even in England. In 1910 three London daily newspapers were principally devoted to illustration-the Daily Graphic, the Daily Mirror and the Daily Sketch, while most of the penny and halfpenny journals included some form of pictorial matter. This change was due 2 It is almost impossible by any statistical detail to give an idea of the advances made by the newspaper press as a whole; Compara1882, together with a fourth, as given in the 10th edition but an outline of the general results for 1828, 1866 and tive staof this encyclopaedia for 1900, may have its utility. tistics. The earliest summary is that of Adrien Balbi. It was published in the Revue encyclopédique for 1828 (vol. i. pp. 593-603), along with much matter of more than merely statistical interest. The numbers of newspapers published in different countries at that date are given as follows: France, 490; United Kingdom, 483; Austria, about 80; Prussia, 288; rest of the Germanic Confederation, 305; Netherlands, 150; Spain, 16; Portugal and the Azores, 17; Denmark, Sweden and Norway, 161; Russia and Poland, 84. The respective proportions of journals to populations were-for Prussia 1 to 41,500. Germa states 1 to 45,300, United Kingdom 1 to 46,000, France to 64,000, Switzerland 1 to 66,000, Austria 1 to 400,000, Russia 1 to 565,000. Europe had in all 2142 newspapers, America 978, Asia 27, Africa 12 and Oceania 9; total 3168. Of these, 1378 were published in English-speaking countries (800 of them in the United States), having a population of 154 millions, and 1790 in other countries, with a population of 583 millions. The second summary (1886) is that given by Eugène Hatin in His enumeration of newspapers is as follows: France, 1640; United an appendix to his valuable Bibliothèque de la presse périodique. Kingdom, 1260; Prussia, 700; Italy, 500; Austria-Hungary, 365; Switzerland, 300; Belgium, 275; Holland, 225; Russia, 200; Spain, 200; Sweden and Norway, 150; Denmark, 100; United States, 4000. Here the proportions of papers to population areSwitzerland and United States 1 to 7000, Belgium 1 to 17,000, France and the United Kingdom 1 to 20,000, Prussia I to 30,000, Spain I to 75,000, Austria 1 to 100,000, Russia I to 300,000. Hatin assigns to Europe a total of 7000, to America 5000 and to the rest of the world 250, making in all 12,500. The third summary is taken from that of Henry Hubbard, pub. lished in his Newspaper Directory of the World (New Haven, Con necticut, 1882). Its scope embraces a considerable number of serial publications which cannot be classed as newspapers. Still Hubbard's figures, which were collected (chiefly by the American consuls and consular agents in all parts of the world) about 1880, cannot be disregarded. The following are his general results: |
