Pall Mall abandoned in 1892. Gradually these changes took effect. In 1900 Mr Theodore Andrea Cook, who had been assistant-editor since 1898, became editor for a brief period, and subsequently Mr Ronald MacNeill (till 1903) acted in this capacity, with Mr W.D. Ross as manager. Meanwhile the St James's Budget, which up to 1893 had been a weekly edition of the Gazelle, was turned into an independent illustrated weekly, edited from the same office by Mr J. Penderel-Brodhurst (afterwards editor of the Guardian), who had been on the editorial staff since 1888; and it continued to be published till 1899. In 1903 the St James's was sold to Mr C. Arthur Pearson, who in 1905, having bought the morning Standard, amalgamated the St James's with the Evening Standard.

minster

The Evening Standard had been founded in 1827 (see under the Standard above), and when it was amalgamated with Bvening the St James's Gazette in 1905, the two titles covered a Standard, new paper, in a new form, as the penny Evening Standard and St James's Gazelle. When the Pall Mall Gazette was sold to Mr Astor in 1892 and converted into a Conservative organ, Mr E. T. Cook, the editor, and most of his staff, resigned, and in 1893 they came together The West- again on the Westminster Gazette, newly started for the purpose by Sir G. Newnes (who had made a fortune out Gazette. of fil-bits and other popular papers) as a penny Liberal evening paper. It was printed on green paper, but the novelty of this soon wore off. The paper was conducted on the lines of the old Pall Mall, and it had the advantage of a brilliant political cartoonist in F. Carruthers Gould. In 1895 Mr Cook was appointed editor of the Daily News, and his place was ably filled by Mr J. Alfred Spender, who had been his assistant-editor, Mr Gould (who was knighted in 1906) being his chief assistant. Apart from Sir F. C. Gould's cartoons, the Westminster became conspicuous in London evening journalism for its high standard of judicious political and literary criticism. It gradually became the chief organ of Liberal thought in London. One of its early literary successes was the original publication of Mr Anthony Hope's Dolly Dialogues, and it continued to maintain, more than any other evening paper, the older literary and political tradition of the " gentlemanly journalism out of which it had sprung. In 1908 a change of proprietorship took place, the paper being sold by Sir G. Newnes (d. 1910) to Mr (afterwards Sir) Alfred Mond, but without affecting the personnel or policy of the paper. The first modern English evening newspaper to be issued at a halfpenny was the London Evening News-afterwards known as the Day. It was started in 1855, but soon failed to meet expenses Halfpenny and disappeared from the scene. In 1868 appeared the Bvening London Echo, published by Henry Cassell. It had for its Papers. first editor, until 1875, Mr (afterwards Sir) Arthur Arnold (1833-1902), afterwards M.P. for Salford (1880-1886) and chairman of the London County Council (1895-1896), who was well known both as a writer and traveller and as founder of the Free Land League (1885). Baron Albert Grant (1830-1899), the pioneer of modern mammoth company-promoting, afterwards took the Echo in hand and wasted a fortune over it; and eventually it was owned for some years by Mr Passmore Edwards, coming to an end in 1905. The Evening News was begun at a halfpenny in 1881 as a Liberal organ, but was shortly afterwards bought by a Conservative syndicate. It saw stormy times, and at the end of thirteen years it had absorbed £298,000 and was heavily in debt. Its shares could then be purchased for threepence or fourpence each. In August 1894 it was purchased by Messrs Harmsworth for £25,000, and under Mr Kennedy Jones's management developed into a highly successful property. On 17th January 1888 the first number of the Star appeared, under the editorship of MrT. P. O'Connor (b. 1848), as a half penny evening newspaper in support of Mr. Gladstone's policy. When Mr O'Connor left the paper, Mr H. W. Massingham became its editor, and subsequently Mr Ernest Parke. In 1909 the Star was acquired by a new proprietorship in which Messrs Cadbury and the Daily News had an important share. From the first it was conspicuous for its advanced attitude in politics, and also for excellent literary criticism. In 1893 Mr T. P. O'Connor founded the Sun, which eventually passed into the hands of a succession of proprietors and came to an end in October 1906. As regards the purely sporting press in London, Sporting Life, started in 1859, became a daily in 1883, and in 1886 Sporting incorporated the old Bell's Life. The daily Sportsman, and the leading paper, was founded in 1865. The financial financial daily press is a modern creation and has taken many dailies. shapes; the Financier was the first regular daily, but in 1884 the Financial News, under Mr H. H. Marks, made its appear1 Albert Grant, who took that name though his father's was Gottheimer, was given the title of baron by King Victor Emmanuel of Italy in 1868 for his services in connexion with the Milan picture gallery. He made a large fortune by company-promoting, and in 1865 became M.P. for Kidderminster. He became a prominent public character in London. In 1873 he built Kensington House, a vast mansion close to Kensington Palace, which in 1883 was demolished and the site seized by his creditors. In 1874 he bought up Leicester Square, converted it into a public garden, and presented it to the Metropolitan Board of Works. But soon afterwards he failed, and from 1876 to his death he constantly figured in the law-courts at the suit of his creditors.

London

weekly

news. papers.

ance, and in 1888 the Financial Times; and these became the leading papers of their class. The London weekly press (see also under Periodicals) has always worn a motley garb. Weekly publication facilitates the individuality of a journal, both as respects its editorship and as respects the class of readers to which it more especially addresses itself. From the days of Daniel Defoe there have always been newspapers bearing the unmistakable impress of an individual and powerful mind. Cobbett's Weekly Register affords perhaps as striking an illustration of journalism in its greatness and in its meanness as could be found throughout its entire annals. And Cobbett's paper has had many successors, some of which, profiting by the marvellous mechanical appliances of the present day, have attained a far wider popular influence than was possessed by the Weekly Register in its most prosperous days.

The history of the weekly reviews practically begins with the Examiner, which was founded in 1808 and had a long career as one of the most prominent organs of the Liberals, ending in 1881. That its literary reputation was great resulted naturally from a succession of such editors as Leigh Hunt, Albany Fonblanque, John Forster and Henry Morley. This was succeeded in January 1817 by the foundation of the Literary Gazette, the proprietor of which was Henry Colburn and the first editor William Jerdan. Jerdan succeeded in inducing Crabbe and Campbell to contribute to it, and among those who assisted him were Bulwer Lytton, Barry Cornwall and Mrs Hemans. The Literary Gazette came to an end in 1862. At the end of 1820 Theodore Hook founded John Bull, which for a time had extraordinary popularity; to it he contributed the most brilliant of his jeux d'esprit.

Epochs in the development of this form of literature were marked by the foundation of the Athenaeum by James Silk Buckingham in January 1828 and by that of the Spectator by Robert Stephen Rintoul later in the same year.

Spectator and

Saturday Review

The Spectator was edited for thirty years by Robert Rintoul. In 1858 the latter sold the paper to Mr Scott, who retired, however, from the editorship after a few months; and for a time the Spectator was in low water. In 1861 it passed into the hands of R. H. Hutton (q.v.) and Meredith Townsend, and under them became a successful exponent of moderate Liberalism and thoughtful criticism, particularly in the discussion of religious problems, such as were uppermost in the days of the Metaphysical Society. The high character and literary reputation of the Spectator were already established when, in 1897, it passed into the hands of Mr J. St Loe Strachey (b. 1860), but under him it became a more powerful organ, if only because it more than maintained its position while the other weekly papers declined. Unionist in politics since 1886, the Spectator after 1903 was the leading organ of Free Trade Unionists who opposed tariff reform, until the progress of socialism and the extravagance of Mr Lloyd-George's budget in 1909 caused it to accept the full policy of the Unionist party in preference to the dangers of socialistic radicalism. No paper in London, it may well be said, has earned higher respect than the Spectator, or carried more weight in its criticisms, both on politics and on literature. This has not been on account of any special brilliance of the pyrotechnic order, but because of continuous sobriety and good sense and unimpeachable good faith.

The Saturday Review, on the other hand, is important historically rather for the brilliance of its "palmy days." First published on the 3rd of November 1855, it was founded by A. J. B. Beresford Hope (1820-1887), a brother-in-law of Lord Salisbury, M.P. for Maidstone and for Cambridge University, and a prominent churchman and art patron; with John Douglas Cook (1808-1868) as editor. Mr Hope was the son of James Hope (1770-1831), author of Anastatius; and it was reputed that Douglas Cook was "Anastatius Hope's natural son. For several years the Saturday maintained an exceptional position in London journalism. On the political side it was at first Peelite, but the strong churchmanship of Mr Beresford Hope and antagonism to Mr Gladstone did much to bring it round to a pronounced Conservative view. Most, though not all, of its early staff had already worked under Mr Cook, when he was editor of the Morning Chronicle (from 1848 to 1854). In its literary comment it gave much space to articles of pure criticism and scholarship. and almost every writer of contemporary note on the Tory side contributed to its columns. But the matter which did most to give it its peculiar character was found in its outspoken or even sensational "middles"-"The Frisky Matron," "The Girl of the Period" (by Mrs Lynn Linton), "The Birch in the Boudoir," &c. The editorship remained in the hands of Mr Cook till his death in 1868. In 1861 a secession from the Saturday lasting till 1863, led to the temporary brilliance of the London Review (1860-1868), started by Charles Mackay. Douglas Cook was succeeded by Philip Harwood (1809-1887), who had followed him from the Morning Chronicle and under whom Mr Andrew Lang became a contributor, with others of note. Mr Harwood retired in 1883, and was succeeded by his former assistant Mr Walter Herries Pollock, under whom the paper underwent some modifications in form to meet changes in the public taste; Mr G. Saintsbury and Mr H. D. Traill were then prominent members of the staff, and Mr Frederick Greenwood wrote for the paper till he started the Anti-Jacobin. In 1894 the Saturday Review

quickly afterwards; and other early papers worth mentioning were the Salisbury Journal (1729); Manchester Gazette (1730-1760); Manchester Mercury (1762-1830); the earliest Birmingham paper, Aris's Gazelle (1741); the Cambridge Chronicle (1744); and the Oxford Journal (1753). Liverpool also boasted of the Liverpool Advertiser (1756) and Gore's General Advertiser (17651870). Of the above the Leeds Mercury (1717) became an increasingly important provincial organ. It was originally published weekly, and its price was three-halfpence. In 1729 it was reduced to four pages of larger size, and sold, with a stamp, at twopence. From 1755 to 1766 its publication was suspended, but was resumed in January 1767, under the management of James Bowley, who continued to conduct it for twenty-seven years, and raised it to a circulation of 3000. Its price at this time was fourpence. The increase of the stamp duty in 1797 altered its price to sixpence, and the circulation sank from 3000 to 800. It was purchased in 1801 by Edward Baines, who first began the insertion of "leaders,' and whose family left an impress not only on journalism but on literature in the North of England. It took him three years to obtain a circulation of 1500; but the Mercury afterwards made rapid progress. When the Stamp Tax was removed, its price was reduced to a penny, and in 1901 to a halfpenny. For many years it admitted neither racing nor theatrical new to its columns, and it had a powerful moral and political influence in Lancashire and Yorkshire.

"

The abolition of the duty on advertisements in 1853, of the stamp duty in 1855, and of the paper duty in 1861, opened the way for a cheap press, and within ten years of the abolition of the paper duty penny morning newspapers had taken up commanding positions in Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee and Aberdeen; in Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Bradford, Newcastle and Sheffield; in Birmingham and Nottingham; in Bristol, Cardiff and Plymouth; and across St George's Channel in Dublin, Cork, Belfast and Waterford. As time went on, and increasingly after the 'seventies, provincial evening papers began to multiply. But any real importance as organs of opinion was still confined to only a few of the great penny provincial dailies, notably the Yorkshire Post, Manchester Guardian, Birmingham Post (1857), Sheffield Telegraph (associated with Sir W. Leng), Liverpool Daily Post, Leeds Mercury and Western Morning News; others too numerous to mention here were at the same time cradling journalists who were to become famous in a larger sphere, such as the Darlington Northern Echo, on which Mr W. T. Stead made his début, while Mr Joseph Cowen for some years made the Newcastle Daily Chronicle a powerful force.

The provincial journals began as strictly local organs. But even in 1870 it was beginning to be universally perceived that, though the influence of a newspaper depends upon the sagacity, sound judgment and courage of the editor, its success as a business enterprise rests mainly with the business manager. Managers demanded less localism, a wider range of news, prompter and fuller reports of all important events, longer parliamentary reports, parliamentary sketches, verbatim reports of speeches by statesmen of the first rank. In the early 'seventies such a thing as a full telegraphic report in a provincial morning newspaper of parliamentary proceedings, or of a speech by a leading statesman, was almost unheard of. The Press Association had been in existence a short time, but had not then covered the country with its organization. Reuter's foreign news service very briefly reported important events. Leading articles were written during the day. Between 1870 and 1880 a complete revolution was effected, as the result of the social and educational changes. Leader-writers began to discuss the latest topics. Newspapers that had been content to fill their columns with local news and clippings from London and distant provincial papers put such matter aside. Telegraphic news crushed it out. In February 1870 the government took over the telegraph system. The advantage of the change was immediately felt by newspapers and their readers. Leading English and Irish newspapers, following Scotland's lead, began to open offices in London, where Fleet Street soon began to be an open directory to the provincial press-English, Scottish and Irish. The Scottish and the leading Irish newspapers of necessity, the wealthiest and most enterprising English papers for convenience and advantage, engaged special wires. Others that were near enough to London to do so secured London news and advertisements by railway, and completed their news supply by a liberal use of the telegraph. Commercial news, both home and foreign, especially American, was expanded. The Press Association spread its news-collecting organization over the whole country, and was stimulated to activity by the rising opposition of the Central News. All this energy had its counterpart in the business side of the press. Rapid "perfecting " printing machines were introduced, and newspaper managers found themselves in possession of newspapers full of the latest news, and procurable in practically unlimited quantities. By the use of special trains and other organizations, circulation increased apace. The development of news agencies, and their universal employment, tended to produce sameness in the provincial press. From this fate the more enterprising journals saved themselves by special London letters, parliamentary sketches and other special contributions. In 1881 the reporters' gallery in the House of Commons was opened to some provincial newspapers, and these accordingly enjoyed new facilities for special effort and distinction. A more important matter,

however, was the bombardment of Alexandria and the subsequent Egyptian War. The leading provincial newspapers had already emancipated themselves from localism, and in general news and criticism had risen almost, if not quite, to the average level of the first-class London journals. Now they were to step abroad into the field of war. Singly or in syndicates, or by arrangement with London journals, the leading provincial newspapers sent out war correspondents, and were able to record the history of events as promptly and fully as the metropolitan press. The first syndicate to send cut war correspondents was formed by the Glasgow News, the Liverpool Daily Post, Manchester Courier, Birmingham Gazette and Western Morning News, who despatched two correspondents to Egypt, and the new departure was attended with complete success. The Central News also sent out war correspondents to Egypt and the Sudan. During the South African War (1899-1902) the Press Association, in conjunction with Reuter's Agency, employed corre spondents, as well as the Central News. The leading provincial newspapers, however, all formed syndicates amongst themselves to secure war telegrams, and in many cases made arrangements for the simultaneous publication of the letters and telegrams of leading London journals. This system of securing simultaneous publication, in provincial newspapers, of special contributions to London morning newspapers was afterwards still further extended, and articles of exceptional interest that have been specially prepared for London journals may now be found on the same day in some of the leading provincial newspapers.

By the beginning of 1880 the country had fallen upon a period of low prices, and extra expenditure upon war telegrams and on an improved supply of general news was to a considerable extent balanced by the reduced cost of paper. A list compiled at the commencement of 1902 gave the names of eighty-seven halfpenny daily newspapers published in English provincial towns, a considerable number of these being morning journals. Of these, sixty-two had been issued since 1870, those bearing earlier dates of origin being in most cases sheets which formerly were issued at a penny or more, but had subsequently reduced their prices. Of the sixty-two that were issued since 1870, twenty-seven appeared between 1871 and 1882, nineteen between 1882 and 1892 and sixteen between 1892 and 1902. Under the stimulus of cheapness the news-sheet was enlarged. More advertisements, more news, more varied contributions, filled up the additional space. The cost of composition increased, and, though circulation and revenue increased also, there was some danger to the margin of profit. Again invention came to the rescue. In the 'eighties some of the leading provincial newspapers began to use type-setting machines. In this forward step the provinces were far ahead of the London papers, excepting The Times. The Southport Daily News-since dead-led the way by introducing six Hattersley machines, and soon afterwards type-setting machinery became the rule in the provincial press. In the development of provincial papers, one factor of special importance must be noted, the desire for news about all branches of sport. In 1870 sporting meant horse-racing and little more. By degrees it enibraced athleticism in all its branches, and progressive newspapers were looked to for information on football, hockey, golf, cricket, lawntennis, yachting, boating, cycling, wrestling, coursing, hunting, polo, running, bowls, billiards, chess, &c., quite as much as for notices of musical and dramatic performances, and of other forms of recreation and amusement. The ordinary provincial press, and its halfpenny evening representatives, largely depend on the attraction of the sporting news; and a number of special local papers have also been started to cater for this public.

Scotland. The first newspaper purporting by its title to be Scottish (the Scotch Intelligencer, 7th September 1643) and the first newspapers actually printed in Scotland (Mercurius Crilicus and Mercurius Politicus, published at Leith in 1651 and 1653) were of English manufacture-the first being intended to communicate more particularly the affairs of Scotland to the Londoners, the others to keep Cromwell's army well acquainted with the London news. The reprinting of the Politicus was transferred to Edinburgh in November 1654, and it continued to appear (under the altered title Mercurius Publicus subsequently to April 1660) until the beginning of 1663. Meanwhile an attempt by Thomas Sydserfe to establish a really Scottish newspaper, Mercurius Caledonius, had failed after the appearance of ten numbers, the first of which had been published at Edinburgh on the 8th of January 1660. It was not until March 1699 that a Scottish newspaper was firmly established, under the title of the Edinburgh Gazette, by James Watson, a printer of eminent skill in his art. Before the close of the

This was followed by the Scotch Dove, the first number of which is dated "September 30 to October 20, 1643," and by the Scottish Mercury (No. 1, October 5, 1643). In 1648 a Mercurius Scoticus and a Mercurius Caledonius were published in London. The Scotch Dove was the only one of these which attained a lengthened existence. Watson was the printer and editor, but the person licensed was James Donaldson, merchant in Edinburgh ("Act in favors of James Donaldson for printing the Gazelle," March 10,1699, published in Miscellany of the Mailland Club, ii. 232 sq.). Arnot, in his History of Edinburgh, mentions as the second of Edinburgh newspapersintervening between Mercurius Caledonius and the Gazette- 3

year the Gazelle was transferred to John Reid, by whose family it long continued to be printed. In February 1705 Watson started the Edinburgh Courant, of which he only published fifty-five numbers. He states it to be his plan to give "most of the remarkable foreign news from their prints, and also the home news from the ports of this kingdom. ... now altogether neglected." The Courant appeared thrice a week. Upon complaint being made to the privy council concerning an advertisement inserted after the transfer of the paper to Adam Boig, the new printer presented a supplication to the council in which he expressed his willingness "that in all time coming no inland news or advertisements shall be put into the Courant, but at the sight and allowance of the clerks of council." In 1710 the town council authorized Mr Daniel Defoe to print the Edinburgh Courant in the place of the deceased Adam Boig. Four years earlier (1706) the indefatigable pioneer of the Scottish press, James Watson, had begun the Scots Courant, which he continued to print until after the year 1718. To these papers were added in October 1708 the Edinburgh Flying Post and in August 1709 the Scots Postman. Five years later this paper appears to have been incorporated with the Edinburgh Gazette. The Caledonian Mercury began April 28, 1720. At one period it was published thrice and afterwards twice a week. Its first proprietor was William Rolland, an advocate, and its first editor Thomas Ruddiman. The property passed to Ruddiman on Rolland's death in 1729, and remained in his family until 1772. It is curious to notice that in his initiatory number of April 1720, Rolland claimed a right to identify his Mercury with that of 1660. This journal, he said in his preface to the public," is the oldest [existing] in Great Britain." And his successor of the year 1860 followed suit by celebrating the "second centenary of the Caledonian Mercury. He brought out a facsimile of No. 1 of Mercurius Caledonius (January 1660), in its eight pages of small quarto, curiously contrasting with the great double sheet of the day. But sixty years is a long period of suspended animation, and the connexion of the two newspapers cannot be proved to be more than nominal. The Caledonian Mercury was the first of Scottish journals to give conspicuous place to literature-foreign as well as Scottish. In "the '45 one of its editors, Thomas Ruddiman, junior, virtually sacrificed his life, and the other, James Grant, went into exile, for the expression of conscientious political opinion. Its publication ceased after an existence of more than one hundred and forty Notwithstanding the positive assertion that the Edinburgh Courant and the Edinburgh Evening Courant" were entirely different journals, and never had any connexion whatever with each other,' a substantial identity may be asserted upon better grounds than those for which identity used to be claimed for the Caledonian Mercury with Mercurius Caledonius. The grant by the town council of Edinburgh in December 1718 of a licence to James M'Ewan to print an Evening Courant three times a week appears to have been really a revival, in altered form, of the original Courant, repeatedly referred to in carlier, but not much earlier, records of the same corporation. So revived, the Evening Courant was the first Scottish paper to give foreign intelligence from original sources, instead of repeating the advices sent to London. In 1780 David Ramsay became its proprietor. Under his management it is said to have attained the largest Scottish circulation of its day. It was then of neutral politics. Subsequently, returning to its original title, and appearing as a daily morning paper, it ranked for long as the senior organ of the Conservative party in Scotland, but at last the competition of the Scotsman caused its disappearance, and after amalgamating with the Glasgow News or the Scottish News in 1886, it expired in 1888. The Edinburgh Weekly Journal began in 1744, but it only attained celebrity when, almost seventy years afterwards, it became the joint property of Sir Walter Scott and of James Ballantyne. Scott wrote in its columns many characteristic articles. Ballantyne edited it until his death in 1833, and was succeeded in the editorship by Thomas Moir. The paper was discontinued about 1840. The Edinburgh Evening News started in 1873.

years.

The Scotsman, the leading Scottish newspaper, was established as a twice-a-week paper in January 1817 and became a daily in June 1855. It ranked as the chief organ of the Liberal party in Scotland. until the Home Rule split in 1886, when it became Unionist. It was founded by William Ritchie, in conjunction with Charles Maclaren. For a short period it was edited by J. R. M'Culloch, the eminent political economist. He was succeeded by Maclaren, who edited the paper until 1845, and he in turn in 1848 by Alexander Russel (18141876), who (with Mr Law as manager) continued to conduct it with Kingdom's Intelligencer. But this was a London newspaper, dating from 1662, which may occasionally have been reprinted in Scotland; no such copies, however, are now known to exist. In like manner the Scottish Mercury, No. 1, May 8, 1692, appears to have been a London newspaper based upon Scottish news-letters, although in an article written in 1848, in the Scottish Journal of Topography, vol. ii. p. 303, it is mentioned as an Edinburgh newspaper.

During an imprisonment of six weeks in the Tolbooth of Edinburgh his health suffered so severely that he died very shortly after his release.

2 Grant, History of the Newspaper Press (1873), iii. 412.

great ability until 1876. In 1859 the first of Hoe's rotary machines brought into Scotland was erected for the Scotsman. The Scotsman soon developed into a great newspaper, strong both on its literary side and also in gathering news; and it was circulated all over Scotland, its publishing offices being opened in Glasgow, which was a better centre for distributing in the west, and in Perth for the north. At last under Charles A. Cooper it succeeded in killing all its rivals in Edinburgh. In 1885 the Scotsman issued an evening paper. The North British Advertiser was founded in 1826. The Witness began in 1840 as the avowed organ of what speedily became the Free Church party in Scotland, In its first prospectus it calls itself the Old Whig. The paper appeared twice a week, and its editor, Hugh Miller, very soon made it famous. In the course of less than sixteen years he wrote about a thousand articles and papers, conspicuous for literary ability, still more so for a wide range of acquirement and of original thought, most of all for deep conscientiousness. It survived its first editor's death (1855) only a few years.

In Glasgow the Glasgow Herald was founded in 1782. When the Scotsman extended its activities to Glasgow, the Herald opened an office in Edinburgh; and it took an active part in breaking down the old localism of Scottish papers. In later years it became a powerful organ. The North British Daily Mail was established in April 1847. George Troup, its first editor, made it specially famous for the organizing skill with which he brought his intelligence at an unprecedented rate of speed from Carlisle, the nearest point then connected with London by railway. The Glasgow Evening News was started in 1870.

The Aberdeen Journal was founded as a weekly paper in 1748 and became a daily in 1876. In 1879 it issued an evening edition. The Aberdeen Daily Free Press, originally a weekly, dates from 1853. In 1881 it issued an evening paper in connexion with itself. The Dundee Advertiser, established in 1801, towards the latter part of the century extended its sphere of influence much on the lines of the Scotsman and Glasgow Herald. It issued the Evening Telegraph in 1877. In 1859 the Dundee Courier, a halfpenny paper, had begun. It may be added that a very large number of the men who have distinguished themselves by their labours on the great newspapers of London, and several who rank as founders of these, began their career and have left their mark on the newspapers of Scotland.

Ireland.-In 1641 appeared a sheet called Warranted Tidings from Ireland, but this, with Ireland's True Diurnal (1642), Mercurius Hibernicus (1644), the Irish Courant (1690), were all of them London newspapers containing Irish news. The real newspaper press of Ireland began with the Dublin News-Letter of 1685. Five years later appeared the Dublin Intelligencer (No. 1, September 30, 1690). Both of these were shortlived. Pue's Occurrences followed in 1700 and lasted for more than fifty years, as the pioneer of the daily press of Ireland. In 1710 or in 1711 (there is some doubt as to the date of the earliest number) the Dublin Gazette began to appear, the official organ of the vice-regal government. Falkener's Journal was established in 1728. Esdale's News-Letter began in 1744, took the title of Saunders's News-Letter in 1754 (when it appeared three times a week), and became a daily newspaper in 1777.

In the Nationalist press the famous Freeman's Journal has long been prominent amongst the Dublin papers. It was established as a daily paper by a committee of the first society of "United Irishmen in 1763, and its first editor was Dr Lucas. Flood and Grattan were at one time numbered amongst its contributors, although the latter, at a subsequent period, is reported to have exclaimed in his place in the Irish parliament. "The Freeman's Journal is a liar... a public, pitiful liar." In 1870 it brought out the Evening Telegraph. In 1891 the dissensions among the Irish Nationalists led to the establishment of the Parnellite Dublin Daily Independent and Evening Herald. In 1897 the Nation, formerly a weekly, was brought out as a daily. On the Unionist side the principal Irish paper is the Dublin Irish Times (1859).

Waterford possessed a newspaper as early as 1729, entitled the Waterford Flying Post. It professed to contain "the most material news both foreign and domestic," was printed on common writing paper and published twice a week at the price of a halfpenny. The Waterford Chronicle was started in 1766.

The Belfast News-Letter was started in 1737; the Belfast Evening Telegraph in 1870; the Belfast Northern Whig in 1824.

British Dominions beyond the Sea.

It is unnecessary here to give all the statistics for the British Colonial press, which has enormously developed in modern times. So far as its carly history is concerned, it may be noted that Keimer's Gazelle was started in Barbadoes in 1731 and Granada followed with a newspaper of its own in 1742. In Canada the Halifax Gazelle was established in 1751 and the Montreal Gazette in 1765. The first Australasian paper was the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser (1803-1843), the Derwent Star, in Van Dieman's Land (Tasmania), starting in 1810. In modern days all the British dominions beyond the sea have produced important and well-conducted papers. The Canadian press has naturally had certain marked affinities with the American; but the Globe in Toronto, as

'See Notes and Queries, 5th series, vii. 45, viii. 205.

India. For a considerable period under the rule of the East India Company the Indian press was very unimportant both in character and influence. It was permitted to shape its course and to gain a position as it could, under the potent checks of the deportation power and the libel law, without any direct censorship. Nor was it found difficult to inflict exemplary punishment on the writers of "offensive paragraphs." Prior to Lord Wellesley's administration the most considerable newspapers published at Calcutta were the World, the Bengal Journal, the Hurkaru, the Calcutta Gazelle (the organ of the Bengal government), the Telegraph, the Calcutta Courier, the Asiatic Mirror and the Indian Gazette. Mr Duane, the editor of the World, was sent to Europe in 1794 for "an inflammatory address to the army," as was Mr Charles Maclean, four years afterwards for animadverting in the Telegraph on the official conduct of a local magistrate.

The Calcutta Englishman dates from 1821. Lord Wellesley was the first governor-general who created a censorship (April 1799). His press-code was abolished by the marquis of Hastings in 1818. The power of transporting obnoxious editors to Europe of course remained. Perhaps the most conspicuous instance of its exercise was the removal of the editor of the Calculla Journal (Silk Buckingham), which occurred immediately after Lord Hastings's departure from India and during the government of his temporary successor, Mr John Adan. Buckingham's departure was followed closely (14th March 1823) by a new licensing act, far exceeding in stringency that of Lord Wellesley, and (5th April 1823) by an elaborate" Regulation for preventing the Establishment of Printing-Presses without Licence, and for restraining under certain circumstances the Circulation of Printed Books and Papers." The first application of it was to suppress the Calcutta Journal.

In the course of the elaborate inquiry into the administration of India which occupied both Houses of Parliament in 1832, prior to the renewal of the Company's charter, it was stated that there were, besides 5 native journals, 6 European newspapers: three daily, the Bengal Hurkaru, John Bull and the Indian Gazete; one published twice a week, the Government Gazette; and two weekly the Bengal Herald and the Oriental Observer. At this period every paper was published under a licence, revocable at pleasure, with or without previous inquiry or notice. At Madras, on the other hand, the press remained under rigid restriction. The Madras censorship was removed whilst the parliamentary inquiry of 1832 was still pending.

One question only, and that but for a brief interval, disturbed Lord William Bentinck's love of free discussion. The too famous "Half-Batta measure led him to think that a resolute persistence in an unwise policy by the home government against the known convictions of the men actually at the helm in India and an unfettered press were two things that could scarcely co-exist. It was on this occasion that Sir Charles Metcalfe recorded his minute of September 1830, the reasoning of which fully justifies the assertion -"I have, for my own part, always advocated the liberty of the press, believing its benefits to outweigh its mischiefs; and I continue of the same opinion." This opinion was amply carried out in the memorable law (drafted by Macaulay and enacted by Metcalfe as governor-general in 1835), which totally abrogated the licensing system. It left all men at liberty to express their sentiments on public affairs, under the legal and moral responsibilities of ordinary life, and remained in force until the outbreak of the mutiny of 1857.

In 1853 Garcin de Tassy, when opening at Paris his annual course of lectures on the Hindustani language, enumerated and gave some interesting details concerning twenty-seven journals (of all sorts) in Hindustani. In 1860 he made mention of seventeen additional ones. Of course the circulation and the literary merits of all of them were relatively small. One, however, he said, had reached a sale of 4000 copies.

In 1857 Lord Canning's law, like that of 1823, on which it was closely modelled, absolutely prohibited the keeping or using of printing-presses, types or other materials for printing, in any part of the territories in the possession and under the government of the East Indian Company, except with the previous sanction and licence of government, and also gave full powers for the seizure and prohibition from circulation of all books and papers, whether printed within the Indian territories or elsewhere.

In 1878 an act was passed, which long remained in force, regulating the vernacular press of India: "Printers or publishers of journals in Oriental languages must, upon demand by the due officer, give bond not to print or publish in such newspapers anything likely to excite

The Hurkaru and the Indian Gazette were long afterwards combined under the new leading title, Indian Daily News (with the old name appended).

The Indian Daily Mirror (1863) was the first Indian daily in English edited by natives. The total number of journals of all kinds pub lished within all the territories of British India was reported by the American consular staff in 1882 as 373, with an estimated average aggregate circulation per issue of 288,300 copies.. Of these, 43, with an aggregate circulation of 56,650 copies, were published in Cal. cutta; 60, with an aggregate circulation of 51,776 copies, at Bombay. In 1900 it appeared from the official tables that there were about 600 newspapers, so called, published in the Indian empire, of which about one-third, mostly dailies, were in the Indian vernaculars. Calcutta had 15 dailies (Calcutta Englishman, &c.); Bombay 2 (Bombay Gazette); Madras 4 (Madras Mail); Rangoon 3 (Rangoon Times): Allahabad 2 (Pioneer); Lahore 2 (Civil and Military Gazette).

AUTHORITIES. For late developments, see Mitchell's, Sell's and Willing's Press Directories. For historical information: J. B. W. Williams, Hist. of British Journalism to the Foundation of the Gazette (1908); H. R. Fox-Bourne, English Newspapers (1877); "The Newspaper Press," Quarterly Review, cl. 498-537 (October, 1880); Hatton, Journalistic London (1882); Pebody's English Journalism (1882); Progress of British Newspapers in the 19th Century (1901; published by Simpkin, Marshall & Co.); Andrews, History of British Journalism (2 vols., 1860); Hunt, The Fourth Estate; Grant, The Newspaper Press (3 vols., 1871-1873); Plummer, "The British Newspaper Press," Companion to the Almanac (1876): Nichols, Literary Anecdotes of the Eighteenth Century, iv. 33-97. (H. CH.)

3. NEWSPAPERS OF THE UNITED STATES 2 Massachusetts.-Boston was the first city of America that possessed a local newspaper; but the earliest attempt in that direction, made in 1689, and a second attempt, under the title Publick Occurrences, which followed in September 1690, were both suppressed by the government of Massachusetts. Nearly fourteen years afterwards (April 24, 1704), the first number of the Boston News-Letter was printed by B. Green, and sold by Nicholas Boone." Its proprietor and editor-so far as it can be said to have had an editor, for extracts from the London papers were its staple contents-was John Campbell, postmaster of the town. In 1719 he enlarged his paper, in order, as he told his readers," to make the news newer and more acceptable; .. whereby that which seem'd old in the former half-sheets becomes new now by the sheet. . . . This time twelvemonth we were thirteen months behind with the foreign news beyond Great Britain, and now less than five months; so that . . . we have retrieved about eight months since January last "; and he encourages his subscribers with the assurance that if they will continue steady "until January next, life permitted, they will be accommodated with all the news of Europe needful to be known in these parts." But Campbell's new plans were soon disturbed by the loss of his office, and the commencement of a new journal by his successor in the postmastership, William Brooker, entitled the Boston Gazelle "published by authority" (No. 1, 21st December 1719). The old journalist had a bitter controversy with his rival, but at the end of the year 1722 relinquished his concern in the paper to Benjamin Green, who carried it on, with higher aims and greater success, until his death, at the close of 1733, being then succeeded by his son-inlaw, John Draper, who published it until December 1762. By Richard Draper, who followed his father, the title was altered to Massachusetts Gazette and Boston News-Letter; and the maintenance of the British rule against the rising spirit of independence uniformly characterized his editorship and that of his widow (to whom, at a subsequent period, a pension was For the general conditions producing the modern type of American newspaper, see the first section of this article. In the following account of American and foreign newspapers, the historical material in the 9th and 10th editions of the Ency. Brit. has been utilized and in parts repeated.

...

that are

In other words, the attention of the Bostonian politicians was engrossed on the siege of Belgrade, when their contemporaries in the mother country were intent on the destruction of the Spanish fleet on the coast of Sicily.