much smaller. The flower clusters spring from the stems at the | to produce poisonous effects when eaten by children, and owe their side of, or opposite to, the insertion of a leaf. The corolla is properties to the presence of solanine. In Réunion and Mauritius the rotate, of a lilac-blue colour with a green spot at the base of each leaves are eaten like spinach. segment, or sometimes white, and bears the yellow sessile anthers word-dribborn to od nie united at their Today' anded fansidraad aliw-davmargins so as gitivoda fun ahto form a cone Brinin asqorul adin the centre of the flower. The ail to flowers are succeeded by ovate scarlet berries, ing 0 b2b and in. long, which dom in large doses appear to be

of Jose

hos poisonous or, to say the least, dangerous to asian children, dars of poisoning by them having occurred. d Solanum Dulcamara quiving (a violaagim 12) 23 is subject to the

same parasitic fungus (Phytophthora infest 673 ans) as the Toto will brug odpotato, band FIG. 1. Bittersweet (Solanum Dulcamara), may serve as I, Flower; 2, fruits, 3, berry, cut across, en- a medium for larged; 4, seed, much enlarged. communicating the spores to the potato if not removed from the hedges of the fields where potatoes are grown. The plant derives its names of "bittersweet" and Dulcamara from the fact that its moloo avilo good to A of hot mort taste is at first bitter To sgeul ant Lorissur guro and then sweet. It 161 mont bum is a native of Joga Dada dalEurope, North bat ba won Africa and tempermol so rate Asia, and has been introduced into North America. The dried young branches are known in pharmacy under the name dulcaaba mara, malin

Deadly nightshade, dwale or belladonna (Atropa celiadonna) is a tall bushy herb of the same natural order (fig. 2). It grows with a black shining berry fruit about the size of a cherry, and a to a height of 4 or 5 ft., having leaves of a dull green colour, large tapering root. The plant is a native of central and south Europe, extending into Asia, and is found locally in England, chiefly on chalk and limestone, from Westmorland and southwards. The entire plant is highly poisonous, and accidents not infrequently occur through children and unwary persons eating the attractive-looking fruit. Its leaves and roots are largely used in medicine, on which account the plant is cultivated, chiefly in south Germany, Switzerland and France (see BELLADONNA). The name nightshade is applied to plants of different genera in other countries. American nightshade is Phytolacca decandra (pokeweed, q.v.). The three-leaved nightshade is an American species of Trillium. The Malabar nightshade is Basella, which is widely used as a pot-herb in India. Enchanter's nightshade is Circaea lutetiana, with slender, erect or ascending stems, paired ovate leaves with long a small, glandular, softly-hairy plant, common in damp woods, stalks, and small white flowers in terminal racemes, succeeded by a small fruit covered with hooked bristles; it is a member of the natural order Onagraceae, and is not known to possess any poisonous property: the name seems to have been given to it in the first place in mistake for a species of Mandragora (see MANDRAKE).

NIGRA, COSTANTINO, COUNT (1828-1907), Italian diplomatist, was born at Villa Castelnuovo, in the province of Turin, on the 11th of June 1828. During the war of 1848 he interrupted his studies to serve as a volunteer against Austria, and was wounded at the battle of Rivoli. On the conclusion of peace he entered the Piedmontese foreign office; he accompanied Victor Emmanuel and Cavour to Paris and London in 1855, and in the following year he took part in the conference of Paris by which the Crimean War was brought to an end. After the meeting at Plombières between Cavour and Napoleon III. Nigra was sent to Paris again to popularize a Franco-Piedmontese alliance, Nigra being, as Cavour said," the only person perhaps who knows all my thoughts, even the most secret." He was instrumental in negotiating the marriage between Victor Emmanuel's daughter Clothilde and Napoleon's nephew, and during the war of 1859 he was always with the emperor. He was recalled from Paris when the occupation of the Marche and Umbria by the Piedmontese caused a breach in Franco-Italian relations, and was appointed secretary of state to the prince of Carignano, viceroy of the Neapolitan provinces. When Napoleon recognized the kingdom of Italy in 1861, Nigra returned to France as ministerresident, and for many years played a most important part in political affairs. In 1876 he was transferred to St Petersburg with the rank of ambassador, in 1882 to London, and in 1885 to Vienna. In 1899 he represented Italy at the first Hague Peace Conference. In 1904 he retired, and he died at Rapallo on the 1st of July 1907. He was created count in 1882 and senator in 1890. Nigra was a sound classical scholar, and published translations of many Greek and Latin poems with valuable comments; he was also a poet and the author of several works of folk-lore and popular poetry, of which the most important is his Canti popolari del Piemonte.

Dulcamara conleontains a bitter prinnd deciple yielding onid by to decomposition no ota sugar dextrose Verogand the is alkaloid solanine. It also contains another glucoside dulcamarin, which when boiled with dilute acid splits up into to NIHILISM, the name.commonly given to the Russian form of Topsugar and dulcama- revolutionary Socialism, which had at first an academical 003 retin. Solanine character, and rapidly developed into an anarchist revolutionary www.appears to exert a movement. It originated in the early years of the reign of depressant action on the vagus nerve and Alexander II., and the term was first used by Turgueniev in his an excitant action celebrated novel, Fathers and Children, published in 1862. FIG. 2.-Deadly Nightshade (Atropa on the medulla ob. Among the students of the universities and the higher technical belladonna). Flowering branch. 1, Flower, longata. after removal of the corolla; 2 corolla, with schools Turgueniev had noticed a new and strikingly original Solanum nigrum stamens, cut open and flattened; 3, cross differs from S. Dulca-type-young men and women in slovenly attire, who called in section of ovary, much enlarged. and mara in having white question and ridiculed the generally received convictions and daudits bod, alflowershrin small respectable conventionalities of social life, and who talked of umbels and globose black berries. It is a common weed in reorganizing society on strictly scientific principles. They gardens and waste places, growing about 12 or 18 in, high, and has reversed the traditional order of things even in trivial matters ovate, entire or sinuate or toothed leaves. Two varieties of the plant, one with red and the other with yellow berries, are sometimes of external appearance, the males allowing the hair to grow long met with, but are comparatively rare. The berries have been known and the female adepts cutting it short, and adding sometimes the

Since the time of Peter the Great, Russia had been subjecteding hostility to the government, and in 1866 this feeling took a to a wonderful series of administrative and social transformations, and it seemed to many people quite natural that another great transformation might be effected with the consent and cooperation of the autocratic power. The doctrines spread, therefore, with marvellous rapidity. In the winter of 1861-1862 a high official wrote to a friend who had been absent from Russia for a few months: "If you returned now you would be astonished at the progress which the opposition-one might say, the revolutionary party-has made. The revolutionary ideas have taken possession of all classes, all ages, all professions, and they are publicly expressed in the streets, in the barracks, and in the government offices. I believe the police itself is carried away by them." Certainly the government was under the influence of the prevailing enthusiasm for reform, for it liberated all the serfs, endowed them liberally with arable land, and made their democratic communal institutions independent of the landed proprietors; and it was preparing other important reforms in a similar spirit, including the extension of self-government in the

NIIGATA

Nijni-Novgorod, Penza, Samara, Saratov, Kharkof, Kiev, | liberal sense. Odessa, Rostov-on-the-Don and Taganrog; and closer relations repaid by an attack on his life. A semblance of parliamentary were established with the revolutionary Socialists in western His conciliatory methods failed signally, and were Europe, especially with the followers of Bakunin, who considered that a great popular rising should be brought about in Russia as soon as possible. Bakunin's views did not, it is true, obtain unanimous acceptance. Some of the Nihilists maintained that things were not yet ripe for a rising of the masses, that the pacific propaganda must be continued for a considerable time, and that before attempting to overthrow the existing social organization some idea should be formed as to the order of things which should take its place. The majority, however, were too impatient for action to listen to such counsels of prudence, and when they encountered opposition on the part of the government they urged the necessity of retaliating by acts of terrorism. In a brochure issued in 1874 one of the most influential leaders (Tkatchev) explained that the object of the revolutionary party should be, not the preparation of revolution in general, but the realization of it at the earliest possible moment, that it was a mistake to attach great importance to questions of future social organization, and that all the energies of the party should be devoted to a struggle with the government and the established order of things, a struggle to the last drop of blood and to the last breath." In accordance with the fashionable doctrine of evolution, the reconstruction of society on the tabula rasa might be left, It was thought, to the spontaneous action of natural forces, or, to use a Baconian phrase, to natura naturans.

To this and similar declarations of irreconcilable hostility the government replied by numerous arrests, and in the winter of 1877-1878 no less than 193 agitators, selected from 2000 arrested on suspicion, were tried publicly in St Petersburg by a tribunal specially constituted for the purpose. Nearly all of them were condemned to imprisonment or exile, and the revolutionary organization in the northern provinces was thereby momentarily paralysed, but a few energetic leaders who had escaped arrest reorganized their scattered forces and began the work anew. They constituted themselves into a secret executive committee, which endeavoured to keep in touch with, and partially direct, the independent groups in the provincial towns. Though they never succeeded in creating an efficient centralized administration, they contrived to give to the movement the appearance of united action by assuming the responsibility for terrorist crimes committed by persons who were in reality not acting under their orders. During the years 1878, 1879 and 1880 these terrorist crimes were of frequent occurrence. General Trepov, prefect of St Petersburg, was shot by Vera Zasulitch under pretence of presenting a petition to him; General Mezentsov, chief of the political police, was assassinated in broad daylight in one of the principal streets of St Petersburg, and an attempt was afterwards made on the life of his successor, General Drenteln; Prince Krapotkin, governor of the province of Kharkof, was assassinated for having introduced stricter prison discipline with regard to political prisoners; a murderous attack was made on the emperor in front of the Winter Palace by an ex-student called Soloviev; repeated attempts were made to blow up the train conveying the Imperial family from the Crimea to St Petersburg; and a dynamite explosion, by which ten people were killed and thirty-four wounded, took place in the Winter Palace, the Imperial family owing their escape to the accident of not sitting down to dinner punctually at the usual hour. Assassination was used also by the agitators against confederates suspected of giving information to the police, and a number of gendarmes were murdered when effecting arrests. After each of these crimes a proclamation was issued by the executive committee explaining the motives and accepting the responsibility.

When repressive measures and the efforts of the police were found insufficient to cope with the evil, Alexander II. determined to try a new system. Count Loris Melikof was entrusted with semi-dictatorial powers, relaxed the severity of the police régime, and endeavoured to obtain the support of all loyal Liberals by holding out the prospect of a series of reforms in a

institutions was not what the Anarchists wanted. They simply
redoubled their activity, and hatched a plot for the assassination
ander II., when driving in St Petersburg, was mortally wounded
of the emperor. In March 1881 the plot was successful. Alex-
by the explosion of small bombs, and died almost as soon as he
had reached the Winter Palace. On the following day the
executive committee issued a bombastic proclamation, in which it
declared triumphantly that the tsar had been condemned to
death by a secret tribunal on 26th August 1879, and that two years
of effort and painful losses had at last been crowned with success.
kindness, and one of the first acts of the new reign was a manifesto
These facts put an end to the policy of killing Anarchism by
in which Alexander III. announced very plainly that he had no
intention of limiting the autocratic power, or making concessions
of any kind to the revolutionary party. The subsequent history
of the movement presents little that is interesting or original,
merely a continual but gradually subsiding effort to provoke
local disturbances with a view to bringing about sooner or
later a general rising of the masses and the overthrow not only
of the government, but also of the existing social and economic
regime. A serious manifestation on the part of the terrorists
took the shape of a plot to assassinate the emperor by bombs
in the streets of St Petersburg in March 1887. It was the work
of a very small group, the members of which were being watched
was to be perpetrated. The movement afterwards showed
by the police, and were all arrested on the day when the crime
occasionally signs of revival. In 1901, for example, there were
troubles in the universities, and in 1902 there were serious
disturbances among the peasantry in some of the central rural
districts; and the assassination of M. Sipiaguine, the minister
of the interior, was a disquieting incident; but the illusions and
enthusiasm which produced Nihilism in the young generation
during the early years of the reign of Alexander II. had been
largely shattered and dispelled by experience. The revolutionary
propaganda temporarily led to a serious situation in the early
years of the reign of Tsar Nicholas II., but a new era opened for
Russia with the inauguration of parliamentary government.

and a half years of its greatest activity (from 1st July 1881 to 1st
The following criminal statistics of the movement during six
January 1888) are taken from unpublished official records:-
Number of affairs examined in the police department, 1500
Number of persons punished

categories:-
These 3046 punishments may be divided into the following
3046
Death
Penal servitude

Exile in Siberia

Exile under police supervision in European Russia
Lesser punishments

20

128

681

1500

717

3046

From the beginning of the movement up to 1902 the number of Anarchists condemned to death and executed was forty-eight, and the number of persons assassinated by the Anarchists was taken from a confidential memorandum presented to the emperor. thirty-nine. There is no reason to suspect the accuracy of these statistics, for they were not intended for publication. They are (D. M. W.)

Pop. (1903) 58,821. It lies on the west coast of the island of NIIGATA, the chief town of the province of Echigo, Japan. Nippon, on a narrow strip of sandy ground between the left bank of the Shinano and the sea, which though close at hand is shut of rather more than 1 sq. m., and consists of five long parallel out from view by a low range of sandhills. It occupies an area streets intersected by cross-streets, which in most cases have canals running down the middle and communicating with the river, so that the internal traffic of the city is mainly carried street, and roofs and verandas project so as to keep the windows on by water. The houses are usually built with gables to the Niigata was originally chosen as one of the five open portsand footpaths from being blocked up by the heavy winter snows. Nagasaki, Kobe, Yokohama, Niigata and Hakodate-but it failed, chiefly owing to a bar which prevents the entry of vessels

of any size. The town has been brought within the railway | groups of three, four, five, &c., up to ten.
circuit, and the production of petroleum has been developed in
the district. Ebisa, on the island of Sado, was opened as a
supplementary harbour of refuge, but not as a trading port.
There is a large manufacture of lacquer-ware in the town.
The foreign trade is entirely in the hands of Japanese merchants.
During winter Niigata suffers from a terribly severe climate;
the summers, moreover, are excessively hot.

NIJAR, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of
Almería; on the southern slope of the Sierra Alhamilla, and
on the small river Artal, which flows into the Mediterranean Sea
6 m. S.W. Pop. (1900) 12,497. Diespite the lack of railway
communication, Nijar is a place of some commercial importance.
Lead, iron and manganese are mined in the neighbouring moun-
tains; the fertilc plain watered by the Artal yields an abundance
of wheat, fruit, olives and esparto grass; and fine porcelain and
woollen and cotton goods are manufactured in the town.
NIJMWEGEN, NIMEGUEN, NYMEGEN or NIMWEGEN, a town
in the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the left bank of the
Waal, 24 m. by rail E. by S. of Tiel. It has regular steamboat
communication with Rotterdam, Cologne and Arnhem, and steam-
tramways connect it with the popular resorts of Neerbosch,
Beek and Berg-en-Dal in the vicinity. Pop. (1904) 49,342.
Nijmwegen is very prettily situated on the slopes of five low
hills rising from the river-side. It stands up with a boldness quite
unusual in a Dutch town, and steps are even necessary to lead
to the higher portions of the town. In 1877-1884 the old town
walls were demolished, a promenade and gardens taking their
place, and since then a new quarter has grown up on the south
side with a fine open place called the Emperor Charles's Plain.
On the east of the town is the beautiful park called the Valkhof,
which marks the site of the old palace of the Carolingian emperors.
The palace was still inhabitable in 1787, but was ruined by the
French bombardment of 1794, and only two portions of it
remain. These are a part of the choir of the 12th-century palace-
church, and a sixteen-sided baptistry originally consecrated
by Pope Leo III. in 799 and rebuilt in the 12th or 13th century.
Close by is the lofty tower of the Belvedere, dating from 1646.
The Groote Kerk of St Stephen forms with its tall square tower
one of the most striking features in the general views of the town.
Originally built about 1272, it dates in its present condition
mainly from the 15th and 16th centuries. In the choir is the
fine monument of Catherine of Bourbon (d. 1469), wife of
Adolphus of Egmont, duke of Gelderland, with a brass of the
duchess, and the heraldic achievements of the house of Bourbon.
There is also a fine organ. The interesting Renaissance town-
hall was built in 1554 (restored in 1879). It is adorned with the
effigies of kings and emperors who were once benefactors of
Nijmwegen. Inside are to be found some fine wood-carving,
tapestries, pictures and a cumbrous safe in which the town
charters were so jealously preserved that the garrison used to be
called out and the city gates closed whenever they were con-
sulted. There is also an interesting museum of antiquities.
Other buildings of note are the theatre (1839), the Protestant
hospital, the Roman Catholic or Canisius hospital (1866), and the
old weigh-house and Flesher's Hall, probably built in 1612 and
restored 1885. Between 1656 and 1678 Nijmwegen was the
seat of a university. Beer, Prussian blue, leather, tin, pottery,
cigars, and gold and silver work are the chief industrial products,
and there is a considerable trade by rail and river.

689

arrangement in such numbered groups is frequent. In an age when books, in our modern sense, were unknown, it was a In the Dialogues the practical necessity to invent and use aids to memory. Such were the repetition of memorial tags, of cues (as now used for a precisely similar purpose on the stage), to suggest what is to come. Such were also these numbered lists of technical ethical terms. deadly sins, the ten commandments, the four cardinal virtues, Religious teachers in the West had similar groups-the seven the seven Sacraments, and many others. These are only now, since the gradual increase of books, falling out of use. 5th century B.C. in India it was found convenient by the early Buddhists to classify almost the whole of their psychology and In the that classification. In the last Nikaya, the Samyulla (The ethics in this manner. And the Anguttara Nikaya is based on Clusters), the same doctrines are arranged in a different set of himself, but also of his principal disciples) on any one point, or in a few cases as addressed to one set of people, are here groups, according to subject. All the Logia (usually of the master brought together. That was, of course, a very convenient arrangement then. It saved a teacher or scholar who wanted to find the doctrine on any one subject from the trouble of repeating over, or getting some one else to repeat over for him, the whole of the Dialogues or the Anguttara. To us, now, the Samyulla seems full of repetitions; and we are apt to forget that they are there for a very good reason.

NIKAYA ("collection "), the name of a division of the Buddhist canonical books. There are four principal Nikayas, making together the Sutta Pitaka ("Basket of Discourses "), the second of the three baskets into which the canon is divided. The fifth or miscellaneous Nikaya is by some authorities added to this Pitaka, by others to the next. The first two Nikayas, called respectively Digha and Majjhima (Longer and Shorter), form one book, a collection of the dialogues of the Buddha, the longer ones being included in the former, the shorter ones in the latter. The third, called the Anguttara (Progressive Addition), rearranges the doctrinal matter contained in the Dialogues in groups of ethical concepts, beginning with the units, then giving the pairs, then the XIX 12

ses as

was great activity in learning, repeating to oneself, rehearsing
During the time when the canon was being completed there
in company and discussing these three collections. But there
was also considerable activity in a more literary direction.
Hymns were sung, lyrics were composed, tales were told, the
results of some exciting or interesting talk were preserved in
summaries of exegetical exposition. A number of these have
been fortunately preserved for us in twenty-two collections,
mostly of very short pieces, in the fifth or miscellaneous Nikaya,
the Khuddaka Nikayatsens towi

prepared for the Pali Text Society, of which five vols. out of six
had been published in 1909, and the first had been translated into
The text of the Dialogues fills about 2000 pages 8vo in the edition
English. The Samyulla, of about the same size, and the Anguttara,
which is a little smaller, have both been edited. Of the twenty-two
American Lectures (1896), pp. 66-79), five have been translated into
English and two more into German.
miscellaneous books twenty have been edited (see Rhys Davids,

Samyutta Nikaya (5 vols.), ed. Léon Feer, vol. vi. by Mrs Rhys Davids,
See Digha Nikaya, ed. Rhys Davids and Carpenter (3 vols.):
(5 vols.); all published by the Pali Text Society. Also Rhys
Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, vol. (Oxford, 1899); A. J.
containing indices; Angultara Nikaya, ed. R. Morris and E. Hardy
Edmunds, Buddhist Bibliography," in Journal of the Pali Text
Society (1903), pp. 5-12.
(T. W. R. D.)

She does not appear personified in Homer; in Hesiod (Theog.
NIKE, in Greek mythology, the goddess of victory (Gr. vikn).
384) she is the daughter of the giant Pallas and Styx, and is sent
to fight on the side of Zeus against the Titans. Nike does not
appear to have been the object of a separate cult at Athens.
She was at first, inseparably connected and confounded with
Pallas Athena, the dispenser of victory, but gradually separated
from her. As an attribute of both Athena and Zeus she is repre-
sented as a small figure carried by those divinities in their hand.
Athena Nike was always wingless, Nike as a separate goddess
or a wreath (sometimes a Hermes staff as the messenger of
winged. In works of art she appears carrying a palm branch
victory); erecting a trophy or recording a victory on a shield;
frequently hovering with outspread wings over the victor in a
competition, since her functions referred not only to success in
war, but to all other human undertakings. In fact, Nike gradu-
ally came to be recognized as a sort of mediator of success between
gods and men.
from the earliest times. Evander was said to have erected a
At Rome the goddess of victory (Victoria) was worshipped
allover ved of amsge of
temple in her honour on the Palatine before the foundation of
Rome itself (Dion. Halic. i. 32, 33). With the introduction of the
Greek gods, Victoria became inerged in Nike. She always had a

2a

NIKISCH-NIKOLAYEV

firm hold over the Roman mind, and her popularity lasted till the end of paganism. Special games were held in her honour in the circus, and generals erected statues of her after a successful campaign. She came to be regarded as the protecting goddess of the senate, and her statue (originally brought from Tarentum and set up by Augustus in memory of the battle of Actium) in the Curia Julia (Dio Cassius li. 22; Suetonius, Aug. 100) was the cause of the final combat between Christianity and paganism towards the end of the 4th century. Victoria had altars in camp, a special set of worshippers and colleges, a festival on the Ist of November, temples at Rome and throughout the empire. The Sabine goddess Vicuna and Vica Pota, one of the dii indigetes (both of them goddesses of victory), are earlier varieties of Victoria (Livy xxix. 14). Representations of Nike-Victoria in Greck and Graeco-Roman art are very numerous. The statue of Nike at Olympia by Paconius has been in great part recovered. See A. Baudrillart, Les Divinités de la victoire en Grèce et en Italie (1894), whose view that in the 5th century Nike became detached from Athena, although Athena Nike still continued to exist, is supported by Miss J. E. Harrison (Classical Review, April 1895) and L. R. Farnell (Cults of the Greek States, i., 1896), but opposed by E. Sikes (C.R., June 1895), who holds that "while Nike was a late conception, Athena Nike was still later, and that the goddess of victory cannot have originated, either at Athens or elsewhere, from an aspect of Athena"; F. Studniczka, Die Siegesgöttin (Leipzig, 1898); Preller-Robert, Griechische Mythologie (1894); O. Benndorf, Über das Cultusbild der Athena Nike (Vienna, 1879); G. Boissier, La fin du paganisme (1891); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 28. In the article GREEK ART, fig. 32 represents Nike pouring water over a sacrificial ox; fig. 36 the floating Nike of Paeonius; figs. 61, 62 (Pl. iii.), the winged Nike of Samothrace; the running or flying figure (fig. 19) is also possibly a Nikē.

NIKISCH, ARTHUR (1855became known as a musical prodigy at an early age, making a ), Hungarian conductor, public performance as a pianist at eight years old. He studied at the Vienna Conservatoire from 1866 to 1873, and while there he composed a symphony and other works. For a time he was engaged as a violinist, but in 1877 he began as assistant conductor at the Leipzig opera and two years later became chief conductor. His success there, and his reputation as the producer of the more modern types of music as well as of classical masterpieces led to his being appointed conductor of the symphony orchestra at Boston, U.S.A., from 1889 to 1893; and subsequently, after having been director at the Budapest opera, he was made conductor at the Leipzig Gewandhaus. His fame was now widespread, and he made successful visits to London, Paris and other capitals, his ability as a pianoforte accompanist being recognized as no less marked than his brilliance as director of an orchestra.

NIKITIN, ATHANASIUS, of Tver (fl. 1468-1474), Russian merchant, traveller and writer, the earliest known Russian visitor to India. He started in 1468 on his "wanderings beyond the Three Seas" (Caspian, Euxine and Indian Ocean), and descended | the Volga, passing by Uglich, Kostroma, Nizhniy Novgorod, Kazan, Sarai and Astrakhan. Near the latter he was attacked and robbed by Tatars; but he succeeded in reaching Derbent, where he joined Vasili Papin, the envoy of Ivan III. of Moscow to the shah of Shirvan; from Nizhniy Novgorod he had travelled with Hasan Bey, the Shirvan shah's ambassador, returning to his master with a present of falcons from Ivan. At Derbent Nikitin vainly endeavoured to get means of returning to Russia; falling in this, he went on to Batu, where he notices the "eternal fires," and thence over the Caspian to Bokhara. Here he stayed six months, after which he made his way southward, with several prolonged stoppages, to the Persian Gulf, through Mazandaran province and the towns of Amul, Demavend, Ray (near Tehran), Kashan, Nain, Yezd, Sirjan, Tarun, Lar and Bandar, opposite New (or insular) Hormuż. From Hormuz he sailed by Muscat to Gujarat, Cambay and Chaul in western India. Landing at Chaul, he seems to have travelled to Umrut in Aurangabad province, south-east of Surat, and thence to Beder, the modern Ahmedabad. Here, and in adjacent regions, Nikitin spent nearly four years; from the little he tells us, he appears to have made his living by horse-dealing. From Beder he visited the Hindu sanctuary ("their Jerusalem ") of Perwattum. He returned to Russia by

Isfahan, Kashan, Sultanieh, Tabriz, Trebizond and Kaffa way of Calicut, Dabul, Muscat, Hormuz, Lar, Shiraz, Yezd, (Theodosia) in the Crimea. He has left us descriptions of western Indian manners, customs, religion, court-ceremonies, corrupt, and the narrative at its best is confused and meagre. festivals, warfare and trade, of some value; but the text is Ceylon, Pegu and China; on royal progresses and other functions, His remarks on the trade of Hormuz, Cambay, Calicut, Dabul, the great fair at Perwattum-as well as his comparisons of things both ecclesiastical and civil, at Beder; and on the wonders of Russian and Indian-deserve special notice.

Sophia in Novgorod; (2) in the library of the Troitsa Monastery Two MSS. are known: (1) in the library of the cathedral of St by Pavel Mikhailovich Stroev in Sofiiski: Vremennik (A.D. 862-1534), (Troitsko-Sergievskaya Lavra) near Moscow. See also the edition Nikitin's being the third narrative in the volume, translated and edited pt. ii. pp. 145-164 (Moscow, 1820-1821); and the English version in by Count Wielhorski; London, Hakluyt Society, 1857). (C. R. B.) India in the 15th Century, pp. Ixxiv.-lxxx.; 1-32 (separately paged,

applied to the principal village, Hachi-ishi, which is 91 m. N.
NIKKO, one of the chief religious centres of Japan. The
of Tokyo by rail. The district is high-lying, mountainous and
name belongs properly to the district, but is as commonly
beautiful, and is in favour for summer residence. The chief
mountain range is known as Nikko-Zan (Mountains of the Sun's
Brightness). A Shinto temple seems to have existed at Nikko
founded by Shodo Sho-nin (the subject of many strange legendary
from time immemorial, and in 767 its first Buddhist temple was
adventures); but the main celebrity of the place is due to the
buried with amazing pomp in 1617, and Iyemitsu, his grandson,
and third shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty. Iyeyasu was
sepulchres and sanctuaries of Iyeyasu and Iyemitsu, the first
was slain in 1650 while visiting his tomb. From 1644 to 1868
the "abbots" of Nikko were always princes of the imperial
blood; thirteen of them are buried within the sacred grounds.
Though the magnificent abbots' residence was destroyed by fire
in 1871, and the temples have lost most of their ritual and much
of their material splendour, enough remains to astonish by
excellence and bewilder by variety of decorative detail. Of the
it is sufficient to mention the cylindrical copper column (1643),
numerous structures which cluster round the shrine of Iyeyasu,
a guardian against evil influences, 42 ft. high, adorned at the
top with a series of lotus flowers, from the petals of which hang
small bells; a five-storied pagoda (1659), 104 ft. high, with the
signs of the zodiac carved round the base; the gate of the Two
Kings, with its figures of unicorns, lions, tigers, elephants,
timber enclosure to which this gate gives entrance, with three
mythical animals and tree-peonies; the vermilion-coloured
great storehouses, a sumptuous stable for the sacred horses, and
Yo-mei-mon, gate, which with the contiguous cloister is covered
a finely fashioned granite cistern (1618) for holy water; and the
with the most elaborate carving, and gives access by way of
another gate (Kara-Mon) to the court in the midst of which stands
the last and most sacred enclosure. This, known as the Tama-
gaki, is a quadrangle of gilt trellis-work 50 yds. square; within it
stands the "chapel " or oratory (or rather a series of chambers),
in the decoration of which gilding and black lacquer have been
lavishly employed. The tomb of Iyeyasu lies apart about two
hundred steps higher up the hills, in the shadow of tall crypto-
a circular base of three steps with a stone table in front on which
merias a single light-coloured bronze urn or casket standing on
rest a censer, a lotus-cluster and a stork with a candlestick in its
mouth, the whole enclosed by a high stone wall. Somewhat similar
are the tomb of Iyemitsu and its surroundings; and though the
art displayed is of an inferior character, the profusion of buildings
hill on which the tomb stands, is completely covered to the summit
and embellishments is even more remarkable. Hotoké Iwa, the
with trees of various tints. There are numerous temples and
shrines of minor interest in the locality.

Russia on the Black Sea, in the government of Kherson, 40 m.
NIKOLAYEV, a town, seaport and chief naval station of
N.W. of the city of Kherson. Pop. (1881) 35,000; (1891)
77,210; (1897) 92,060. Nikolayev stands a little above the