immediately before and during the War of Independence, and had organized a practically independent government. In 1776 this was formally annexed to North Carolina, but in 1784 the state ceded this district to the national government on condition that it should be accepted within two years. The inhabitants of the district, however, objected to the cession, especially to the terms, which, they contended, threatened them with two years of anarchy; declared their independence of North Carolina and organized for themselves the state of Franklin. But the new state was weakened by factions, and after a brief and precarious existence it was forced into submission to North Carolina by which with the proviso that no regulation made or to be made by Conin 1790 the territory was again ceded to the national government gress should tend to the emancipation of slaves (see TENNESSEE). North Carolina sent delegates to the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention of 1787, but the state convention, at Hillsboro, called to pass upon the constitution for North Carolina, did not meet until the 21st of July 1788, when ten states had already ratified. On the first day of this convention the opponents to the constitution, among whom were most of the delegates from the western counties, were ready to reject it without debate, but yielded to a proposal for discussing it clause by clause. In this discussion, which was continued for nine days, the document was most strongly opposed because it contained no bill of rights and on ment that the state governments would ultimately be sacrificed. At the conclusion of the debate the convention by a vote of 184 to 84 declared itself unwilling to ratify the constitution until a bill of rights had been added and it had been amended in several other particulars so as to guarantee certain powers to the states. By reason of this rejection the relations of North Carolina with the other states were severed upon the dissolution of the Confederation, and it took no part in the first election or in the organization of the new government. However, there was a speedy reaction against the oppositon which had in no small measure been inspired by fear of a requirement that debts be paid in gold and silver. A second convention met at Fayetteville in November 1789 and the constitution was speedily ratified (on the 13th) by a vote of 195 to 77.

a few days after they were passed. As for the "Declaration," the original records of the transactions of Mecklenburg county were destroyed by fire in 1800, but it is claimed that a copy of the "Declaration" was made from memory in the same year, and when, in 1819, a controversy had arisen as to where the movement for independence originated, this copy was published, first in the Raleigh Register and North Carolina Gazette and then in many other newspapers. Several aged men also testified that they had heard a declaration of independence read at Charlotte, the county-seat, in May 1775; and one of them stated that he had carried it to the Continental Congress. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, however, declared that they had never heard of it before, and both believed it spurious. But Jefferson was charged with plagiarism by those who believed in the authenticity of the "Declaration," and in 1833 there was discovered a proclamation of Governor Martin, dated the 8th of August a series of resolves by a committee of Mecklenburg county which declared "the entire dissolution of the laws, government and constitution of the country." Another stage of the controversy was reached in 1838-1847 when the Mecklenburg Resolutions of the 31st of May 1775 were discovered either in part or in full in newspaper files. There seems practically no basis for the contention that a declaration of independence was adopted on the 20th other than the tradition that independence was declared by the Mecklenburg Committee on that date, and the occasional references in print, even before 1819, to a declaration of independence in the county in 1775. Those who believe the " Declaration" to be spurious argue that survivors remembered only one such document, that the Resolutions might easily be thought of as a declaration of independence, that Governor Martin in all probability had knowledge only of these and not of the alleged "Declaration," and that the dates of publication in the Raleigh and Charleston newspapers, and the politics of those papers, show that the Resolutions are authentic. In July 1905 there appeared in Collier's Weekly (New York) what purported to be a facsimile reproduction of a copy of the Cape Fear Mercury which was referred to by Governor Martin and which contained the " Declaration "; but this was proved a forgery. The first and the second provincial congress did little except choose delegates to the Continental Congress and the management of affairs passed in large measure from the royal government to the several county committees. The third provincial congress, which met on the 21st of August 1775, still required its members to sign an oath of allegiance to King George III. but formed a provisional government consisting of a provincial council and six District Committees of Safety. The first sanction of independence by any body representing the whole province was given by the fourth Provincial Congress on the 12th of April 1776, and the same body immediately proceeded to the consideration of a new and permanent form of government. Their labours ended, however, in another provincial government by a Council of Safety, and the drafting of North Carolina's first state constitution was left to a constitutional convention which assembled at Halifax on the 12th of November.

North Carolinians fought under Washington at Brandywine and Monmouth and played a still more important part in the Southern campaigns of 1778-1781. The state was twice invaded, in 1776 and in 1780-1781, and two important battles were fought upon her soil, Moore's Creek on the 27th of February 1776 and Guilford Court House on the 15th of March 1781.

The territory now comprising the state of Tennessee belonged to Carolina under the charters of 1663 and 1665, and fell to North Carolina when the original province was divided. To this 1 The 20th of May has been made a holiday in North Carolina, and the date appears on the state flag and the state seal; and a statue has been erected at Charlotte in memory of the signers of the

"Declaration.'

The period from 1790 to 1835 was marked by a prolonged contest between the eastern and the western counties. When the state constitution of 1776 was adopted the counties were so nearly equal in population that they were given equal representation in the General Assembly, but the equality in population disappeared in the general westward movement, and in 1790 the West began to urge a new division of the state into representative districts according to population and taxation. This was stubbornly resisted, and the West assumed a threatening attitude as the East opposed its projects for internal improvements for which the West had the greater need. In 1823 the West called an extra-legal convention to meet at Raleigh, and those from the far West, in which there were practically no slaves, delegates from 24 of the 28 western counties responded, but wished free white population to be made the basis of representation, while those from the Middle West demanded the adoption of the basis for the national House of Representatives and the convention made only a divided appeal to the people. Ten years later, however, at the election of assemblymen, 33 of the western counties polled an extra-legal vote on the question of calling a constitutional convention, and 30,000 votes were cast for it to only 1000 against it. The effect of this was that in January 1835 the legislature passed a bill for submitting the question legally to all the voters of the state, although this bill itself limited the proposed convention's power relating to representation by providing that it should so amend the constitution that senators be chosen by districts according to public taxes, and that commoners be apportioned by districts according to Federal representation, i.c. five slaves to be counted equal to three whites. When the popular vote was taken, in the following April, every eastern county gave a majority against the convention, but the West, even with the limitation which was decidedly

Jesse Franklin

Gabriel Holmes

Hutchings G. Burton

James Iredell

John Owen

Montford Stokes

David Lowry Swain

Richard Dobbs Spaight, Jr.
Edward Bishop Dudley
John Motley Morehead
William Alexander Graham
Charles Manly
David Settle Reid

Warren Winslow (ex-officio)
Thomas Bragg

John Willis Ellis

Henry Toole Clark (ex-officio)
Zebulon Baird Vance
William Woods Holden
Jonathan Worth

Gen. Daniel Edgar Sickles.

Gen. Ed. Richard Sprigg Canby William Woods Holden

Tod R. Caldwell

Curtis Hooks Brogden.
Zebulon Baird Vance
Thomas Jordan Jarvis
Alfred Moore Scales
Daniel Gould Fowle
Thomas Michael Holt
Elias Carr

1861-1862 1862-1865 Provisional 1865 Conservative 1865-1867 Military 1867 1867-1868 Republican 1868-1870 1870-1874 1874-1877 Democrat 1877-1879 1879-1885 1885-1889 1889-1891 1891-1893 1893-1897 Republican 1897-1901 Democrat 1901-1905 1905-1909 1909

Daniel Lindsay Russell Charles Brantley Aycock Robert Brodnax Glenn William Walton Kitchin BIBLIOGRAPHY.-For physical description, resources, industries, &c., see State Board of Agriculture, North Carolina and its Resources (Raleigh, 1896); North Carolina Geological Survey Reports (Raleigh, 1852, sqq.); the publications of the North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey (Raleigh, 1893, sqq.), e.g. Water Powers in North Carolina (1899), by G. F. Swain, Joseph H. Holmes and E. W. Myers, Gold Mining in North Carolina and other Appalachian States (1897), by H. B. C. Nitze and A. J. Wilkins, The Tin Deposits of the Caro, linas (1905), by J. H. Pratt and D. B. Sterrett, Building and Ornamental Stones of North Carolina (1907), by T. L. Watson and others. The Fishes of North Carolina (1907), by Hugh M. Smith, and History of the Gems found in North Carolina (1908), by G. F. Kunz; Report of the Secretary of Agriculture in Relation to the Forests, Rivers and Mountains of the Southern Appalachian Region (Washington, 1902); Climatology of North Carolina (Raleigh, 1892); and H. Thompson, From the Cotton Field to the Cotton Mill, a Study of the Industrial Transition in North Carolina (New York, 1906), contains some interesting observations on the changes in social conditions resulting from the growth of the cotton-manufacturing industry. John W. Moore, History of North Carolina (2 vols., Raleigh, 1880); S. A'Court Ashe, History of North Carolina (2 vols., Greensboro, 1908) are general surveys. Cornelia P. Spencer, First Steps in North Carolina History (6th ed., Raleigh, 1893), is a brief elementary book written for use in the public schools. For the colonial and revolutionary periods there are some excellent studies. C. L. Raper, North Carolina: a Study in English Colonial Government (New York, 1904), treats of the royal period (1729-1776) from the legal point of view; J. S. Bassett, Constitutional Beginnings of North Carolina (Baltimore, 1894); The Regulators of North Carolina (Washington, 1894); and Slavery in the State of North Carolina (Baltimore, 1899), are all trustworthy. S. B. Weeks deals with the religious history in his Religious Development in the Province of North Carolina (Baltimore, 1892), Church and State in North Carolina (Baltimore, 1893) and Southern Quakers and Slavery (Baltimore, 1896); he is anti-Anglican, but judicial. E. W. Sikes, The Transition of North Carolina from Colony to Commonwealth (Baltimore, 1898), based on the public records, is accurate, though dull. There is a considerable controversial literature concerning the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence; W. H. Hoyt's The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence (New York, 1907) is the best presentation of the view generally adopted by competent historians that the alleged Declaration of the 20th of May 1775 is spurious; G. W. Graham, The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence (New York, 1905), and J. W. Moore, Defence of the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence (1909), are perhaps the best of the attempts to prove the same Declaration genuine. The older histories of the colony are: Hugh Williamson, History of North Carolina (2 vols. Philadelphia, 1812), which deals with the period before 1771 and is meagre and full of errors; F. X. Martin, History of North Carolina (2 vols., New Orleans, 1829), which deals with the period before 1776, contains much irrelevant matter and is of little value; F. L. Hawks, History of North Carolina (2 vols. Fayetteville, N.C., 1857-1858), written from the established church point of view, the best and fullest treatment of the proprietary period (1663-1729); and W. D. Cooke (ed.), Revolutionary

History of North Carolina (Raleigh and New York, 1853), containing a defence of the Regulators. For the Reconstruction period see J. G. de Roulhac Hamilton, Reconstruction in North Carolina (Raleigh, 1906); Report of the Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Condition of Affairs in the late Insurrectionary States, being the 42nd Congress, 2nd session, House Report 22 (13 vols., Washington, 1872; vol. ii. deals with North Carolina); and Hilary A. Herbert et al. Why the Solid South? or Reconstruction and its Results (Baltimore, 1890). The chief published sources are The Colonial Records of North Carolina (10 vols., Raleigh, 1886-1890); and The State Records of North Carolina (vols. 11-20, 1776-1788; other vols., in continua. tion of the colonial series, Winston (11-15) and Goldsboro (16-20), 1895-1902; the series is to be continued). The best bibliography is S. B. Weeks, Bibliography of Historical Literature of North Carolina (Cambridge, 1895).

NORTHCOTE, JAMES (1746-1831), English painter, was born at Plymouth on the 22nd of October 1746. He was apprenticed to his father, a poor watchmaker of the town, and during his spare hours was diligent with brush and pencil. In 1769 he left his father and started as a portrait-painter. Four years later he went to London and was admitted as a pupil into the studio and house of Reynolds. At the same time he attended the Academy schools. In 1775 he left Reynolds, and about two years later, having acquired the requisite funds by portrait-painting in Devonshire, he went to study in Italy. On his return to England, three years later, he revisited his native county, and then settled in London, where Opie and Fuseli were his rivals. He was elected associate of the Academy in 1786, and full academician in the following spring. The "Young Princes murdered in the Tower," his first important historical work, dates from 1786, and it was followed by the Burial of the Princes in the Tower," both paintings, along with seven others, being executed for Boydell's Shakespeare gallery, The "Death of Wat Tyler," now in the Guildhall, was exhibited in 1787; and shortly afterwards Northcote began a set of ten subjects, entitled" The Modest Girl and the Wanton," which were completed and engraved in 1796. Among the productions of Northcote's later years are the" Entombment "and the " Agony in the Garden," besides many portraits, and several animal subjects, like the "Leopards," the " Dog and Heron," and the "Lion"; these latter were more successful than the artist's efforts in the higher departments of art, as was indicated by Fuseli's caustic remark on examining the "Angel opposing Balaam "Northcote, you are an angel at an ass, but an ass at an angel." The works of the artist number about two thousand, and he made a fortune of £40,000. He died on the 13th of July 1831.

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Northcote was emulous of fame as an author, and his first essays in literature were contributions to the Artist, edited by Prince Hoare. In 1813 he embodied his recollections of his old master in a Life of Reynolds. His Fables-the first series published in 1828, the second posthumously in 1833-were illustrated with woodcuts by Harvey from Northcote's own designs. In the production of his Life of Titian, his last work, which appeared in 1830, he was assisted by William Hazlitt, who previously, in 1826, had given to the public in the New Monthly Magazine.his recollections of Northcote's pungent and cynical "conversations," the bitter personalities of which caused much trouble to the painter and his friends.

NORTH DAKOTA, one of the North Central states of the American Union, between 45° 55′ and 49° N., and 96° 25′ and 104° 3' W. It is bounded N. by the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba, S. by South Dakota, W. by Montana and E. by Minnesota, from which it is separated by the Red river (or Red river of the North). North Dakota has an extreme length, E. and W., of 360 m., an extreme width, N. and S., of 210 m., and a total area of 70,837 sq. m., of which 654 sq. m. are water surface.

Topography.-North Dakota lies in the Prairie Plains and Great Plains physiographic provinces. The escarpment of the Coteau du Missouri is the dividing line, that portion to the N. and E. lying in the Prairie Plains, that to the S.W. in the Great Plains. The surface presents few striking topographic features, and may be subdivided into three vast plains or prairie tablelands rising one above the other from E. to W., the two easternmost together constituting the Prairie Plains portion of the state. The lowest of these plains is the valley of the Red river, and this valley extends along the eastern edge of the state and varies in width from 25 to 70 m. Its elevation is 965 ft. at

Wahpeton, in the extreme S.E.; 903 ft. at Fargo; 836 ft. at Grand Forks; and 798 ft. at Pembina, in the extreme N.E., which is the lowest point within the state. To the W. of this valley lies a second plain, ranging in height from 1200 to 1600 ft. above sea level, and in width from 75 m. in the S. to 200 m. in the N. This plain is separated from the Red river valley in the N. by an abrupt slope rising to a height of from 300 to 500 ft. above the surrounding country, and called the Manitoba escarpment, because the greater part of it lies in the province of Manitoba. The Pembina Mountains, low hills near the international boundary and about 30 m. W. of the Red river, form a portion of this escarpment. From these hills southward the ridge gradually becomes less abrupt until in Walsh county it vanishes into prairie. The ascent to the upper plain then becomes very gentle, though there is a rise of 400 or 500 ft., until it reaches the south-eastern portion of Sargent county and changes into the more abrupt Coteau des Prairies, a plateau about 2000 ft. above the sea. The second plain, while not so level as the Red river valley, contains but one group of hills, the Turtle Mountains; these rise from 300 to 400 ft. above the general level, near the centre of the northern boundary. The prairies in this second table-land are gently rolling, and are covered with drift from the continental ice-sheet of the glacial period. They are bounded on the W. by a ridge from 300 to 400 ft. in height and from 20 to 50 m. in width, which roughly marks the dividing line between the farming lands of the E. and the grazing lands of the W. The northern portion of this ridge forms the water-parting between the streams that empty into Hudson Bay and those that flow into the Gulf of Mexico. To the W. of this ridge lies the third and highest plain within the state, the so-called Coteau du Missouri. It occupies nearly one half of the state, and rises gradually westward until it attains a general level of about 2700 ft. East of the Missouri river this region is covered with glacial drift, and is noticeably different from the more level lands of the lower plains. The ice-sheet wore down from the hills and filled the valleys with débris until the surface has a billowy appearance. As the Missouri river marks approximately the lower edge of the ice-sheet, the region W. of this stream is almost free from glacial deposits and presents a strong contrast to the rest of the state. The billowy plains still remain in places, but in the vicinity of streams the billows give way to deep ravines. The sands and clays found here are fine and soft, and as there is scant vegetation to protect the hillsides they are easily eroded by the rains. As a result, the surface has been carved into fantastic forms. The early French explorers called the region les terres mauvaises, on account of the difficulties that here met the traveller, and in its English equivalent, the Bad Lands," this appellation still remains. High winds and scams of burning lignite coal have aided the rains in giving the Bad Lands their peculiar configuration. Prairie fires or spontaneous combustion have ignited many coal seams. Some have already burnt out; others still emit smoke and sulphurous fumes from the crevices in the hillsides, and through the fissures may be seen the glowing coal and rock. The earth surface above these natural furnaces has been hardened, cracked and sometimes melted into a reddish slag, called scoria, which, on account of its resemblance to lava, has given rise to an incorrect impression that the region was once the centre of volcanic disturbances. The picturesque effect of this sculpturing by water, wind and fire is greatly enhanced by the brilliant colours along the faces of the hills and ravines-grey, yellow, black and every shade of red and brown. Here too are found petrified forests and other evidences of a vegetable growth that has long ago disappeared. The lands are bad for the traveller and the farmer, but not for the ranchman. A few miles from the streams the country is less broken, and there are deep grassy valleys, in which the animals may find shelter in winter. Cattle sometimes congregate in cold weather around a burning coal seam and enjoy the warmth. The lignite in this region also warms the ranchman's cabin, being easily mined where a seam is exposed

in the walls of a ravine or on the side of a hill.

North Dakota has a mean elevation of 1900 ft. The highest

point in the state, about 3500 ft., is in the southern part of Bowman county, east of the Little Missouri river. Rivers.-There are three drainage systems within the state: Souris, river and its tributaries, and the Missouri river and its tribu the Red river (of the North) and its tributaries, the Mouse, or taries. The Red river flows in a winding channel along the eastern boundary and empties into Lake Winnipeg in Canada, thence reaching Hudson Bay through the Nelson river. Its tributarics are small, and are remarkable chiefly for the fact that they at first make a great bend to the N.E. before joining it. The Sheyenne, the flow in a direction almost opposite to that of the main stream, and Goose, the Park and the Pembina rivers are the most important of these streams. The Mouse, or Souris, river rises in Canada, crosses the international boundary near the meridian of 102° W. long., meridian re-enters British territory, after receiving the waters of the flows S.E. for about 70 m., then turns to the N. and near the 101st Rivière des Lacs and other small streams. The Missouri river, the most important stream within the state, crosses the western boundary general south-casterly direction, leaves the state near the centre near the 48th parallel, and after pursuing a winding course in a of its southern boundary. The James river, flowing southward into South Dakota, is the Missouri's only important eastern tributary within the state. From the W. the Missouri receives the waters of the Little Missouri, Cannon Ball, Heart and Knife rivers. All that portion of the state lying W. of the Pembina Mountains and E. of the Mouse river valley is practically without river drainage, and for its surface and sub-surface drainage, Devils Lake, an irregular body of water about 40 m. in length and with an area of 400 sq. m., forms a natural reservoir. The waters of this lake are strongly saline. of the Mouse and Missouri rivers is dotted with small lakes. The The entire region W. of the Red river valley and E. of the valleys morainic belts and other obstructions in the drift plains hem in the waters in the intervening basins and create what are called "glacial lakes," varying in diameter from a few yards to several miles. All the lakes of the state are of this character, and many are strong with salt and alkali. The drift plains also contain numerous shallow hollows, locally termed "pots and kettles," which receive the drainage of their vicinity and form sloughs.

Fauna and Flora.-Before the advent of the white man, herds of bison roamed the prairies, but these have disappeared, and, with the Bad Lands. Here are found the lynx, the "mountain lion" the exception of deer and bears, large game is to be found only in or puma, the prairie and timber wolves, the jack rabbit, the prairie dog (gopher), the black, the brown and, occasionally, the grizzly bear. A few fur-bearing animals, the mink, beaver and raccoon, still sloughs and stubble-fields of the prairies, teal, ducks, coots and remain. The prairie dog is found everywhere. Among the lakes, geese are found in abundance. Other prairie birds are the prairie chicken, and there are a great many birds that sing while flying: among them are the horned lark, bobolink, Smith's longspur and chestnut collared longspur, lark-sparrow, lark-bunting and Sprague's pipit.

The flora of North Dakota is typical of a semi-arid country. The prevailing plant-colour is a greyish green, due to a hard dry outer covering which serves as a protection from desiccation. All plant life has a remarkably large proportion of subterranean growth, because of the necessity of getting moisture from the earth and not from the air; hence roots and tubers are unusually well developed. The Red river valley is a meeting ground for many species of plants whose principal habitat lies in some other quarter. Many trees of red, white and black ash, red and rock elm, black and bur oak, the eastern forest, such as basswood, sugar, river and red maple, white and red pine and red cedar find their western limit here. Some species characteristic of the more northerly regions-for example, the mountain ash, balsam fir, tamarack and black and white spruce-find here their southern or south-western limits. The same is true of shrubs and herbaceous plants. The prickly ash, Virginian creeper and staff-tree find here their northern limit; and the mountain maple, Canada blueberry, dwarf birch and ground hemlock their southern limit. Of 1500 species of herbaceous plants in the Red river basin, it is estimated that fully half reach here their geographical limit or limit of frequent occurrence. Trees are found

The peculiar bow shape of these western tributaries of the Red river is due to the fact that these streams originally flowed S.E. into Lake Agassiz, now extinct. As the waters of the lake gradually receded, the rivers reached it by pushing their channels eastward through what was once its bed. The southern part of the lake bottom was finally uplifted by a movement of the earth crust, and the outlet was changed from the S. to the N.E. The waters continued to recede, and the tributaries, in cutting their way through the sediment, followed the slope of the land and gradually turned northward.

The carly settlers found the bones of the bison scattered over the prairies, and after the construction of railways the gathering and shipping of these for use in sugar refining and in the manufacture of superphosphate became temporarily a profitable industry. Between January and August 1889 a single dealer at Minot shipped 1200 tons, which sold at $8 the ton.