is the drachm of 100 lepta, which, like the lira, is equivalent | which were of the current value of 20 and 10 francs. In 1892 to the franc. The denominations are in gold, the 100, 50, 20, the monetary system of Austria-Hungary was entirely reformed 10 and 5 drachms; in silver, the 5, 2 and 1 drachm, and 50 and on a gold standard, the unit of account being the crown of 100 20 lepta; and in bronze, the 10, 5, 2 and 1 lepton. In 1893 hellers. This is a decimal coinage, and the denominations are, nickel was substituted for bronze, and coins of the value of 20, in gold, the 20 crowns (of 164 from the kilogramme of fine gold), 10 and 5 lepta were issued in this metal. The types of the coins 10 crowns and ducat (=9 silver crowns 60 hellers); in silver, of Greece are similar to those of Italy. Crete has had since 1900 the crown (-10d.) and half-crown; in nickel, the 20 and 10 a coinage of its own similar to the Greek (silver of 5, 2 drachmae, hellers; and in bronze, the 2 and 1 heller. The gold ducat was I and drachma; bronze and nickel of 20, 10, 5, 2 lepta and a trade-money (Handelsmünze) of the current value of 10 francs, 1 lepton). and it displaced the 8- and 4-florin pieces of 1870. The types of Germany. Since 1871 the coinage of the German empire the Austrian has been entirely remodelled. By a convention in 1857 between and Hungarian the states of Germany, north and south, and Austria a general coins somewhat coinage of a silver standard was established on the basis of the vary. The Ausnew pound of 500 grammes as sanctioned by the Zollverein. The trian gold coins contracting countries were divided into three sections, North show the head Germany, South Germany and Austria. From the pound of of the emperor fine silver of 500 grammes the Northern States struck 30 thalers, and the twoAustria 45 florins and the Southern States 52 florins; their headed eagle, relation being 1 North German thaler=1 Austrian florins= but those of FIG. 8.-Florin (silver), Austria-Hungary. 1 South German florins. The free towns of Hamburg, Lübeck Hungary a fulland Bremen did not join the convention. The first reform in length figure of the emperor and the national shield surmounted the coinage of the German empire occurred in 1871, when a new by the crown of St Stephen held by angels. The silver coins of gold money was introduced, which had for its unit the silver both series have the head of the emperor and the mark of value mark (a money of account) of 100 pfennigs weighing 5:555 under the imperial or royal crown. The nickel and bronze grammes. The new gold pieces were of the value of 10 and 20 money of Austria displays the imperial eagle on the obverse, marks, called crowns and double crowns, and the fineness was whilst that of Hungary has the crown of St Stephen. The pure to alloy. This new issue necessitated a readjustment legends are respectively in Latin and Magyar. of the current values of the various silver coinages in circulation. Spain. The unit of the Spanish coinage from 1864 to 1868 In 1873 a further step was made by the introduction of an was the silver escudo of 200 grains divisible into 10 reals. On entirely new silver coinage throughout the empire, which was the dethronement of Isabella in 1868 the provisional government also based on the silver mark, and of a new base metal coinage adopted the principles of the Latin Monetary Union and made in nickel and bronze. The silver coins were the 5, 2 and 1 mark the peseta the unit of account, this coin being equivalent to the and 50 and 20 pfennigs; those in nickel the 10 and 5 pfennigs, franc. The coins struck during 1869-1870 were, in gold, the and in bronze the 2 and 1 pfennig. The silver coins were, like 100 pesetas; in silver, the 5, 2 and 1 peseta, and the 50 and 20 the gold, fine, so that 90 marks were struck to the pound of centimos; and in bronze, the 10, 5, 2 and 1 centimo. The pure metal. The gold 5 marks was struck in 1877 and 1878, obverse type of each metal varied; on the gold Spain is standing; and the 20 pfennigs in silver was replaced by a coin of the same on the silver she is reclining; and on the bronze she is seated. value in nickel in 1886. The reverse type for all the coins is During his short reign (1870-1873) Amadeus I. struck only the imperial eagle, but that of the obverse varies; the gold and gold coins of 100 and 25 pesetas and silver of 5 pesetas, and silver showing the portrait of the reigning king or prince, but there was practically no money issued during the republic which the mark, and all lesser followed his abdication. Don Carlos during the insurrection denominations, the current of 1874-1875 struck 5 pesetas in silver and 10 and 5 centimos value. An exception was in bronze bearing his portrait and title "Carolus VII." After made in the case of the the restoration of Alphonso XII. the coinage consisted of 25 coinage of the Free Towns and 10 pesetas in gold; struck at Hamburg, which 5, 2 and 1 peseta and 50 has the arms of the city centimos in silver; and instead of a portrait. Each 10 and 5 centimos in state retained its full rights bronze. This coinage was of coinage, and the various continued under Alphonso mints throughout the empire with their special marks XIII., but in 1887 the 20 are: Berlin, A; Hanover, B; Frankfort, C; Munich, D; pesetas in gold was subDresden (removed since 1877 to Müldner-Hütte), E; Stutt-stituted for the 25 pesetas, FIG. 9.-Peseta (silver), Spain. gart, F; Karlsruhe, G; Darmstadt, H; and Hamburg, J. In and in 1897 large coins 1876 a gold standard was proclaimed, and henceforth no person were struck of 100 pesetas. The types show the head of the was legally bound to accept in payment more than 20 marks king on the obverse and the shield with or without the pillars of in silver and the value of 1 mark in nickel or bronze. The old Hercules on the reverse. thalers (worth 3 marks) still circulate. FIG. 7.-Twenty Marks (gold), 1885 Portugal. A gold standard was adopted by Portugal in 1854, the unit of value being the milreis of 1000 reis. The coins are, in gold, the crown or 10 milreis and the half, fifth and tenth crown or milreis; in silver, the 10, 5 and 2 testoon; in nickel, the 100 and 50 reis; and in bronze, the 20, 10 and 5 reis. The general type of the gold and silver is the head or bust of the king and the royal shield; but the bronze varies in having on the obverse a shield and on the reverse the mark of value. Austria-Hungary.-After the convention of 1857 with Germany (see above), when Austria based her coinage on the silver standard of the florin, two series were issued-(i.) Vereinsmünzen (money of the union), in gold, the crown and half-crown; in silver, the double thaler (=3 florins) and thaler; (ii.) Landesmünzen (money of the state), in gold, the 4 and 1 ducat; in silver, the double florin and florin; in billen, the 20, 10 and 5 kreuzers; and in copper, the 4, 3, 1 and kreuzer. In 1868 Austria abandoned the convention, but made no change in her money; and in the same year the coinage of Hungary was made uniform with that of the empire, both in standard and denominations. In 1870 the Vereinsmünzen crown and hall-crown were discontinued, and their place was taken by 8- and 4-florin pieces Denmark, Sweden and Norway.-Previous to 1872 in Denmark the unit of value was the silver rigsbankdaler of 96 skillings; in Sweden, the rigsdaler of 100 öre; and in Norway, the speciesthaler of 120 skillings; but in that year a monetary convention was concluded between these countries establishing a decimal coinage, which had for its unit the krone of 100 öre, and of which the standard was gold. The denominations are, in gold, the 20, 10 and 5 kroner; in silver, the 7 and 1 krone, and 50, 25 and 10 öre; and in bronze, the 5, 2 and 1 ör. The gold and silver money of Sweden and Norway to the 50 öre bears the head of the king and the royal shield; the silver of smaller denominations and the bronze, the monogram of the king and the mark of value. Since the separation of the two kingdoms in 1906, Norway has a coinage of its own in the name of Haakon VII. In Denmark the gold and silver have the head of the king, and, for reverse type, a figure of Denmark, a shield, or the mark of value. The bronze coins are similar to those of Norway and Sweden. Russia. The Russian coinage previous to 1885 was based on the silver rouble of 278 grains of pure metal; but during the greater part of the reign of Alexander II. (1855-1881) the currency consisted almost entirely of paper money. In 1885 Alexander III. determined to place the coinage on a proper footing, and introduced the rouble of 100 copeks as the unit of account, with a relative value of gold and silver of 1 to 15. The coins issued were, in gold, the imperial of to roubles, and the half-imperial; in silver, the rouble, and the 50, 25, 20, 15, 10 and 5 copeks; and in copper, the 5, 3, 2, 1, and copek. In 1897 the relative value of gold and silver was advanced to 1 to 231, thus raising the current value of the imperial to 15 roubles; but no change was made in the weights of the coins, and the silver rouble remained the unit of account. In the same year a piece of 5 roubles, called the one-third imperial, was added to the gold coins. The general types of the gold and silver show the head of the emperor and the imperial eagle; and of the copper, the imperial eagle and mark of value. FIG. 10.--Seven and one-half Roubles (gold), Russia. Georgia, Poland and Finland.-The separate issues of Georgia and Poland were suppressed in 1833 and 1847 respectively; but Finland in 1878 established a decimal coinage of gold, silver and bronze on the principles of the Latin Monetary Union, having the markhaa (= 1 franc) as its unit of value. Turkey. There has been practically no change in the money of the Ottoman empire since the reforms of Abdul-Medjid in 1844, when the piastre, or 40-para piece, of the current value of 21d., was made the unit of the coinage; 100 piastres go to the gold medjidíeh or pound. The denominations are, in gold, the 500, 250, 100, 50 and 25 piastres; in silver, the 20, 10, 5, 2, I and piastre; and in copper, the 40, 20, 10, 5 and 1 para. The type in all metals is, on the obverse, the Sultan's tughra, or cipher, and on the reverse, a wreath, and the name of the mint, date, &c. In 1878 the silver dollar of 412} grains was resumed, and the 20 cents discontinued; in 1887 the issue of the "trade dollar " was suspended; and in 1890 the same fate befell the three dollars and dollar in gold, and the three cents in nickel. The types are-gold, head of Liberty and eagle, silver, head of Liberty, or Liberty seated, and eagle, except the dime, which has the mark of value; nickel, shield (5 cents) and head of Liberty; bronze, head of an Indian, and (1910) bust of Lincoln, with reverse types for either metal, the mark of value. Canada, &c.-The currency for the Dominion of Canada, which includes Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and British Columbia, is of silver and bronze, based on the system of the United States. The denominations are 50, 25, 20, 10 and 5 cents in silver, and the cent in bronze; and they also have a uniform type of the sovereign's head and mark of value. The same system prevails in Newfoundland, which also issues the double dollar in gold: this is the only gold coin issued in a British colony whose standard is not the same as that of the mother country. There is a separate coinage for Jamaica, but of nickel only, and consisting of the penny, halfpenny and farthing. Mexico, &c.-We need not give any detailed account of the coins of Mexico, and of the various states of Central and South America, in nearly all of which there have been radical changes since 1870. Most of them have adopted the decimal system, with a gold, silver or bi-metallic standard; the unit of value in the gold standard being generally the peso of 3-225 grammes, and in the silver also the peso, but of silver of 20, 25 or 27 grammes. India. As to the coins of the East and Far East, we will limit our of silver of 150 grains is still the unit of value. In 1893 the mints remarks to the more important countries. In British India the rupee were closed to the unrestricted coinage of silver for the public. In 1899 they were opened to the free coinage of gold, the sovereign being declared legal tender. At present 115 rupees of 1s. 4d.; I rupee 16 annas; 1 anna4 pice; I pice-3 pie=1 farthing. Persia.-In Persia since 1879 a decimal system in conformity with the principles of the Latin Monetary Union has been adopted, having for its unit the kran weighing 78 grs., thus being equivalent to the franc, but since reduced to 71 grs. or even less. The denominations are: in gold, the 10, 5, 2, 1, and toman (the toman=10 krāns); and in copper, the 4, 2 and I shahi (=2 pals), and the pal. in silver, the 5, 2 and 1 krān (=20 shahis), and the 10 and 5 shahis; Japan. Since 1870 Japan has formed its coinage on the European decimal system in place of the ancient national coins, the obangs and itsibus, the unit being the yen of 100 sen. The standard was bi1898 a gold standard was adopted, the issue of the silver yen was metallic, and the relation of gold and silver stood at 1-16-17. In, suspended, and the weight of the gold money was reduced by onehall. The coins issued since that date are, in gold, the 20, 10 and 5 bronze, the sen and half-sen. There is one general type for all the yen; in silver, the 50, 20 and 10 sen; in nickel, the 5 sen; and in silver, nickel and bronze coins, being the dragon on the obverse and a wreath of flowers with mark of value on the reverse. The gold varies in having flags and flowers on the reverse. On the silver and bronze coins the legends are in English as well as in Japanese. to a limited extent, and instituted a silver coinage having as its unit China. In 1890 China followed the example of Japan, but only a dollar of the same value as the United States silver dollar and the Japanese yen. It is calculated in fractions of the lael, a money of account of the value of 2s. 11d. The coins are the dollar, and the mint and mark of value in English on the obverse, and on the reverse 50, 25, 10 and 5 cents, with the Chinese dragon and inscriptions, Canton and Wei-Chang, but later other mints have been established. These are not, strictly speaking, imperial money, the sole official coinage and monetary unit being the copper cash. A decree of the 20th of November 1905 proposed to establish an official dollar on the basis of the Kuping tael. An edict of May 1910 provides for a standard currency dollar of 72 candareens, with a subsidiary decimal coinage in silver, nickel and copper, for circulation throughout the empire. Balkan States. Since the dismemberment of the Ottoman empire the kingdoms of Rumania and Servia, and the principality of Bulgaria, have each adopted the decimal system of the Latin Monetary Union. In Rumania the unit of account is the leuthe mark of value in Chinese and Manchu. They were first struck at of 100 bani; in Servia, the dinar or 100 paras; and in Bulgaria, the lev of 100 stotinki-each of these units being the equivalent of the franc. In all these states gold, silver, bronze and nickel is current money. United States.-In America the most important event connected with the coinage was a change of standard. (See MONEY). Previous to 1873 the standard was silver, having for its unit the dollar of 4124 grains of fine; but in that year a gold standard was adopted, the gold dollar of 25-8 grains and fine being the sole unit of value. This change of standard was accompanied by a slight modification of the denominations, which became, in gold, the double-eagle, eagle, half and quarter eagle, three dollars and dollar; in silver, the half and quarter dollar, 20 cents and dime; in nickel, the 5 and 3 cents; and in bronze, the cent. In addition to these a silver piece called the "trade dollar " of 420 grains was struck, not for circulation in the States, but for export to China. The following changes have since occurred: Korea has had since 1905 a new coinage on the Japanese system, but with the Korean date. Hong Kong.-The only other Asiatic coinage we shall note is that of Hong Kong, where in 1866 was established a coinage, which was also based on the United States standard, having the silver dollar as its unit. The denominations are the dollar and 50, 20 and 5 cents in silver, and the cent and mill in bronze; and, with the exception of the mill, they all have for type the sovereign's head and the mark of value. In connexion with this coinage there was issued in 1895 a "trade dollar" for special currency in the Straits Settlements and Hong Kong in lieu of the Mexican dollar, the scarcity of which was a considerable hindrance of trade. This coin, which was struck at the Bombay mint, shows on the obverse Britannia holding a trident and shield, and on the reverse within an ornamental design | the denomination in Chinese and Malay. Since 1903, however a new தங்க FIG. 11.-"Trade Dollar "(silver), Hong Kong. special dollar with the king's head has been issued for the Straits Settlements. banner. rom. (1807-1837); W. M. Leake, Numismata Hellenica (1854-1859); Poole, B. V. Head. P. Gardner, W. Wroth and G. F. Hill, Brit. Alus. Catal. of Greek Coins (Italy, Sicily, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, &c., begun in 1873); F. Lenormant, La Monnaie dans l'antiquité (1878, 1879); P. Gardner, Types of Greck Coins (1882); F. ImhoofBlumer, Monnaies grecques (1883); F. Imhoof-Blumer and P. Gardner, Numismatic Commentary on Pausanias (1885. 1886); B. V. Head, Historia numorum (1887; new ed. in preparation). F. Imhoof-Blumer, Griechische Münzen (1890); Head, Guide to the Coins of the Ancients (4th ed., 1895); Hill Handbook of Greek and Roman Coins (1899); G. Macdonald, Catalogue of the Hunterian Collection (3 vols., 1899-1905); E. Babelon, Traité des monnaies grecques et rom. (1901-); Th. Reinach, L'Histoire par les monnaies (1902); Corolla numismatica, Numism. Essays in honour of B. V. Head (1906); G. F. Hill, Historical Greek Coins (1906); K. Regling, Sammlung Warren (1906); Periodicals: Journal international d'archéologie numismatique (Athens); Nomisma (Berlin). B. Metrology: J. Brandis, Münz, Mass- und Gewichtswesen (1866); F. Hultsch, Griech. u. rom. Metrologie (1882); Gewichte des Altertums (1898); C. F. Lehmann, articles in Verhandl. der Berl. Ges. für Anthropologie (1889, 1891); Das all-babylonische Massund Gewichtssystem (1893). C. Special Districts: (See also the respective volumes of the British Museum Catalogue.) (a) Spain.-A. Heiss, Monn, ant. de l'Espagne (1870); Zobel de Zangróniz, Estudio historico de la mon. ant. esp. (1878-1880); E. Hübner, Monum. linguae Ibericae (1893) (6) Gaul.-E. Muret and M. A. Chabouillet, Catal. des monn. gaul. (1889); H. de la Tour, Allas des monn, gaul. (1892); J. A. Blanchet. Traité des monn. gaul. (1905). (c) Britain.-J. Evans, Ancient British Coins (1864, 1890). (d) Italy.-F. Carelli, Num. Ital. veteris (1850); L. Sambon, Presqu'ile italique (1870); R. Garrucci, Mon. dell Italia ant. (1885); A. J. Evans, The" Horsemen" of Tarentum (1889); Berlin Museum Catalogue, iii. 1 (1894); A. Sambon, Monn. ant. de l'Italie (1904- ). (e) Sicily.-B. V. Head, Coinage of Syracuse (1874); A. J. Evans, articles in Num. Chr. (1890-1894); A. Holm, "Gesch. des sicil. Münzwesens" (in vol. iii. of his Gesch Siciliens, 1898); G. F. Hill, Coins of Ancient Sicily (1903). (f) Northern Greece.-L. Müller, Alexandre le Grand (1855); Lysimachus (1858); F. Imhoof-Blumer, Münzen Akarnaniens (1878); P. Burachkov, Greek Colonies in S. Russia (Russian, 1884); Berlin Museum Catalogue, i., ii. (1888, 1889); Berlin Academy, Die antiken Münzen Nordgriechenlands (1898- ). (g). Central Greece, Peloponnesus and Islands.-E. Beulé, Monn. d'Athènes (1858); J. N. Svoronos, Crète ancienne (1890). (h) Asia Minor.-M. Pinder, Uber die Cistophoren (1856); Th. Reinach, Trois royaumes d'Asie Mineure (1888); F. Imhoof-Blumer, Griechische Münzen (1890); E. Babelon, Les Perses achéménides, &c. (1893); F. Imhoof-Blumer, Lydische Stadtmünzen (1897); E. Babelon, Inventaire de la coll. Waddington (1898); F. Imhoof-Blumer, Kleinasiatische Münzen (1901, 1902); W. H. Waddington, Th. Reinach and E. Babelon, Recueil général des monn. gr. d'Asie Mineure (1904- ). (i) Syria, Phoenicia, and the Greek East (see also Oriental).-F. de Saulcy, Num. de la terre sainte (1874); F. W. Madden, Coins of the Jews (1881); E. Babelon, Rois de Syrie, &c. (1890); Perses achéménides (1893); Th. Reinach, Jewish Coins (trans. M. Hill, 1903). (j) Egypt and Africa.-L. Müller, Monn. de l'ancienne Afrique (1860-1874); G. Dattari, Numi Augg. Alexandrini (1901): J. N. Svoronos, Νομ. τοῦ Κράτους τῶν Πτολεμαίων (1904). (4) Roman. Th. Mommsen, Hist. de la monn. rom., trans. Duc de Blacas and J. de Witte (18651875); H. A. Grueber," Roman Medallions," Brit. Mus. Catal. (1874); W. Fröhner, Médaillons de l'empire rom. (1878); H. Cohen, Monn. frappées sous l'empire rom. (1880-1892); E. Babelon, Monn. de la république rom. (1885, 1886); H. A. Grueber, "Roman Republican Coins," Brit. Mus. Catal.; E. J. Haeberlin, Systematik des altesten römischen Münzwesens (1905); G. F. Hill, Historical Roman Coins (1909); H. Willers, Geschichte der römischen Kupferprägung vom Bundesgenossenkrieg bis auf Kaiser Claudius (1909); H. A. Grueber, Catalogue of the Roman Republican Coinages in the British Museum (1910). (1) Byzantine.-J. Sabatier, Monnaies byzantines (1862); Warwick Wroth, Catalogue of the Imperial Byzantine Coins in the British Museum, 2 vols. (1908). Egypt.-Glancing cursorily at the coinage of Africa, we may note that since 1885 Egypt has adopted a gold standard with the gold pound of too piastres as the unit of account. The piastre is no longer divisible into 40 paras, but into 10 ochr-el-guerche or tenths. The types are similar to the Turkish money, and though bearing the legend" struck at Cairo " the coins are really made at Birminghamn. For some years gold has not been issued. Abyssinia. In Abyssinia since 1893 there has been a silver coinage, but the Austrian Maria Theresa dollar is still 'current. The new coins are, in silver, the talari (=dollar, worth about 2s.),, and talari, and in copper, the guerche, and and guerche. They show on one side the head of the king, and on the other a lion holding a Zanzibar.-Zanzibar has also issued a dollar of the fixed value of 2 rupees and 2 annas, and a copper coin called a pessa (=136th of a dollar). Sudan.-The African coinages which have attracted exceptional attention are those of the Sudan and the South African Republic. The former dates from 1885, when the Mahdi struck the pound of 100 piastres in gold and the 20 piastres in silver, of the same type as the Egyptian coins, but on the silver piece were placed the words "By order of the Mahdi," but no mint name. His successor, Abdullah, struck pieces of 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 piastre in silver and 10 paras in copper, but no gold. They bear the name of the mint, Omdurman, and the word makbul, i.e. accepted. At first the silver coins were of 6 parts silver and 2 copper, but in a few years they were so debased that they degenerated into mere pieces of copper washed with silver. The last issue is dated 1897 (A.H. 1315). Congo Free State (Belgian Congo).The coinage issued since 1887 consists of silver of 5, 2, 1 fr. and 50 centimes, and copper (with central hole) from 10 centimes to I centime. Transvaal.-The first attempt at a separate coinage in the Transvaal was in 1874, when President Burgers issued sovereigns or pounds showing his portrait on the obverse and the shield of the Republic on the reverse. They were struck by Messrs Heaton of Birmingham, but as cach piece of the current value of 20s. cost 26s. to strike, only £680 worth was issued, and but few of these passed into circulation, being preserved as curiosities. No further attempt was made till 1891, when President Kruger induced the Raad to order a coinage in gold, silver and bronze after the English standard. The first issue occurred in 1892, and consisted of the pound and halfpound in gold; the crown, half-crown, florin, shilling, sixpence and threepence in silver; and the penny in bronze. They are all of the same type as the pound of 1874, but with the portrait of President Kruger on the obverse. The first issue of the pound, half-pound and crown was minted at Berlin, and a curious mistake was made in the arms of the state, the wagon being represented with two shafts instead of with one. This blunder was soon noticed, and a recoinage took place in the same year at Pretoria. Since the annexation British coins have been legal tender, but a new copper coinage was approved in 1904. BIBLIOGRAPHYI. Periodicals: Numismatic Chronicle (London); Revue numismatique (Paris); Zeitschrift für Numismatik (Berlin); Numismatische Zeitschrift (Vienna); Rivista italiana di numismatica (Milan); Revue belge de numismatique (Brussels). II. General Works: F. Lenormant, Monnaies et médailles (1883); W. Ridgeway, Origin of Metallic Currency (1892); S. Lane-Poole and others, Coins and Medals (3rd ed., 1894): E. Babelon, Origines de la monnaie (1897); A. von Sallet, Münzen und Medaillen (1898); G. Macdonald, Coin-Types (1905); L. Forrer, Biographical Diction ary of Medallists, &c. (1904- ). 111. Greek and Roman: A. General: J. H. von Eckhel, Doctrina numorum veterum (1792-1798); J. C. Rasche, Lexicon univ. rei num. veterum (1785-1804); T. E. Mionnet, Descr. de médailles gr. et In this bibliography no mention is made as a rule of articles in periodicals, or of monographs on the coinage of special cities or small districts. IV. Medieval and Modern: A. General: J. Neumann, Beschrei bung der bekanntesten Kupfermünzen (1858-1872); J. A. Blanchet, Numism. du moyen âge et moderne (1890); A. Engel et R. Serrure, Numism. du moyen âge (1891-1905); Numism. moderne (18971899); A. Luschin von Ebengreuth, Allgemeine Münzkunde” u. Geldgesch. (1904). B. Transitional Period: J. Friedländer, Münzen der Ostgothen (1844); A. Heiss, Monn. des rois wisigoths d'Espagne (1872); C. F. Keary, Coinages of Western Europe (1879); Bril. Mus. Catal. of English Coins, i. (1887); M. Prou, Les Monn. merovingiennes (1892); A. de Belfort, Descr. générale des monn. mérovingiennes (1892-1895). C. Countries: (a) Portugal.-A. C. Teixeira de Aragão, Descr das moedas de Portugal (1874-1880). (b) Spain.-A. Heiss, Mon: hispano-cristianas (1865-1869). (c) France.-F. Poey d'Avant, Monn. féodales de France (1858-1862); supplement by E. Caron, 1882-1884); H. Hoffmann, Monn. royales de France (1878); Gariel, Monn. roy. de France sous la race carolingienne (1883-1884); M. Prou, Les Monn. carolingiennes (1896); Médailles françaises." Médailles de la révol. franç." "Méd. de l'emp. Napoléon," Trésor de numismatique (1834-1840); N. Rondot, Les Médailleurs et les graveurs de monnaies, &c., en France (1904); F. Mazerolle, Les Médailleurs français (1902-1904); Periodical, Revue numismatique. (d) Great Britain and Ireland.-R. Ruding, Annals of the Coinage (1840); B. E. Hildebrand, Anglosachsiska Mynt (1881); E. Hawkins, Silver Coins of England (3rd ed. by Kenyon, 1887); R. LI. Kenyon, Gold Coins of England (1884); C. F. Keary and H. A. Grueber, Bril. Mus. Catal. of English Coins, i. ii. (1887, 1893); H. A. Grueber, Handbook of Coins of Great Britain and Ireland (1899); E. Hawkins, A. W. Franks and H. A. Grueber, Medallic Illustrations of the History of Great Britain and Ireland (1885; plates to ditto, from 1904, in progress); R. W. Cochran-Patrick, Records of the Coinage of Scotland (1875); E. Burns, Coinage of Scotland (1887); Richardson, Catal. of the Scottish Coins in the Nat. Mus., Edinburgh (1901); R. W. Cochran-Patrick, Catalogue of the Medals of Scotland (1884); Aquilla Smith, various papers on Irish coinage; D. T. Batty, Copper Coinage of Great Britain, Ireland, &c. (1868-1898); W. Boyne, Trade Tokens issued in the 17th Century (ed. G. C. Williamson, 1889); periodicals, Numismatic Chronicle; British Numismatic Journal. (e) Low Countries.-P. O. van der Chijs, Munten der Hertogdommen Braband en Limburg (1851) and other works (1852-1862); R. Serrure, Dict. géogr. de l'hist. mon. belge (1880); A. de Witte, Histoire monétaire du Brabant (1894-1899); G. van Loon, Hist. métallique... des PaysBas (Fr. ed. 1732-1737), supplement to ditto (1861-1871); Periodical, Rev. belge de numismatique. (f) Switzerland.-R. S. Poole, Catal. of Swiss Coins in South Kensington Mus. (1878); Wunderly v. Muralt, Münz 24. Medaillen-Sammlung (1895-1899); L. Coraggioni, Münzgesch. der Schweiz (1896); periodical, Revue suisse de numis. matique. (g) Italy.-F. and E. Gnecchi, Bibliografia numismatica delle Zecche italiane (1889); V. Promis, Tavole sinottiche delle monete baltute in Italia (1869); Mon. dei Reali di Savoia (1841); A. Cinagli, Mon. dei Papi (1848); F. and E. Gnecchi, Monete di Milano (1884); N. Papadopoli, Mon. di Venezia (1893); C. Desimoni, Mon. della Zecca di Genova (1891); J. Friedländer, Italienische Schaumünzen (1880-1882); A. Heiss, Médailleurs de la Renaissance (1881-1892); A. Armand, Médailleurs italiens (1883-1887); C. von Fabriczy, Italian Medals (trans. Hamilton, 1904); periodical, Rivista italiana di numismatica (Milan), (h) Germany.-H. P. Cappe, Münzen der deutschen Kaiser u. Könige (1848-1850); G. Schlumberger, Bracteates d'Allemagne (1873); H. Dannenberg, Deutsche Münzen der sächs. u. frank. Kaiserzeit (1876–1905); A. Engel et E. Lehr, Num. d'Alsace (1887); M. Donebauer, Sammlung böhmischer Münzen u. Medaillen (1888-1890); E. Bahrfeldt, Münzwesen der Mark Brandenburg (1889-1895); Sammlung in der Marienburg (1901-1906); F. von Schrotter, Das preussische Münzwesen im 18ten Jahrh. (1902-1904); Trésor de numismatique, “Médailles allemandes " (1841); A. Erman, Deutsche Medailleure (1884); K. Domanig, Porträtmedaillen des Erzhauses Österreich (1896); Kön. Museen zu Berlin, Schaumünzen des Hauses Hohenzollern (1901); K. Domanig, Die deutsche Medaille (1907); G. Habich," Studien zur deutschen Renaissance-Medaille "in Berlin Jahrbuch (1906- ). Periodicals, Zeitschrift für Numismatik (Berlin), Numismatische Zeitschrift (Vienna). (1) Poland.E. Hutten-Czapski, Monn. et méd. polonaises (1871-1880), () Russia and Scandinavia.-Baron de Chaudoir, Monn. russes (18361837); Ct. J. Tolstoi, Coins of Kieff (1882), Coins of Great Novgorod (1884), Coins of Pskoff (1886; in Russian); Mansfeld-Büllner, Danske Mynter (1887); P. Hauberg, Danmarks Myntwasen og Mynter, 12411377 (1885. 1886); Myntforhold og Udmyntinger i Danmark indtil 1146 (1900). (k) Latin East, &c.-G. Schlumberger, Num. de l'orient latin (1878); E. H. Furse, L'Ordre souverain de St Jean de Jérusalem (1885). (1) America.-D. K. Watson, Hist. of American Coinage (1899); A. Weyl, Fonrobertsche Sammlung (1878); A. Rosa, Monetario americano (1892); J. Meili, O Meio circulante no Brazil (1897-1905). (m) Money of Necessity.-P. Mailliet, Monn. obsidionales et de nécessité (1870-1873); A. Brause-Mansfeld, Feld-, Not- und Belagerungsmünzen (1897-1903). V. Oriental.-A. Pre-Mahommedan: (a) Persia and the Greek East.-A. de Longpérier, Médailles des rois perses de la dyn, sassanide (1840); B. V. Head, Coinage of Lydia and Persia (1877); P. Gardner, Parthian Coinage (1877); E. Babelon, Les Perses achéménides (1893); W Wroth, Parthia," Brit. Mus. Catal. (1903). (b) India, &c.J. Prinsep, Essays on Indian Antiquities (ed. Thomas, 1858); A. Cunningham, Alexander's Successors in the East (1873); T. W. Rhys Davids, Ancient Coins, &c., of Ceylon (1877); P. Gardner, "Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria and India," Brit. Mus. Catal. (1886); W. Elliott, Coins of Southern India (1886); A. Cunningham, Coins of Ancient India (1891); Coins of the Indo-Scythians (1892); Coins of Medieval India (1894); E. J. Rapson, "Indian Coins" (in Bühler's Grundriss, 1898); Vincent A. Smith, Catal. of Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, vol. i. (1906). B. Mahommedan: W. Marsden, Numismata orientalia (1823); C. M. Fraehn, Recensio num. Muhammedanorum (1826); F. Soret, Numismatique musulmane (1864); W. Tiesenhausen, Coins of the Oriental Khalifs (1873. Russian); R. S. Poole and S. Lane-Poole, Catal. of Oriental Coins in the British Museum (1875-1891); R. S. Poole, Catalogue of Persian Coins in the British Museum (1887); S. Lane-Poole, Catalogue of Indian Coins in the British Museum (1884-1892); F. Codera y Zaidin, Numismatica arabigo-española (1879); H. Lavoix, Catal. des monn. musulmanes de la bibliothèque nationale, i-iii. (1887-1891); C. J. Rodgers, Catal. of the Coins of the Indian Museum (1893-1896); Catal. of the Coins of the Lahore Museum (1893-1895); Kön. Museen zu Berlin, H. Nutzel, Katalog der orientalischen Münzen, i.-ii. (1898-1902); O. Codrington, Manual of Musulman Numismatics; H. Nelson-Wright, Catal. of the Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, vols. ii.-iii., Sultans of Delhi and Moghul Emperors (1907-1908). C. The Far East: W. Vissering, Chinese Currency (1877); Terrien de la Couperie, Catal. of the Chinese Coins in the Brit. Mus., 7th century B.C.-A.D. 621 (1892); J. H. S. Lockhart, Currency of the Farther East (1895-1898); N. G. Munro, Coins of Japan (1904); D. Lacroix, Numismatique annamite (1900); A. Schroeder, Annam, Eludes numismatiques (1905); C. T. Gardner, Coinage of Corea Journ. North China Branch of R. Asiatic Soc., vol. xxvii.). (R. S. P.; H. A. G.; G. F. H.*) NUMMULITE, NUMMULITES, A. d'Orbigny's name for a genus of Perforate Foraminifera (q.v.), distinguished by the flattened, lenticular discoid shell of many turns, finely perforated; chambers subdivided by incomplete septa into squarish chamberlets. This genus is especially abundant in Eocene Limestones, which attain great thickness around the Mediterranean basin; the Pyramids of Egypt are built of it. for an old man or woman), a member of a community of women, NUN (O. Eng. nunne, from Lat. nonnus, nonna, familiar terms living under vows a life of religious observance (see MONASTICISM). In ecclesiastical Latin nonnus was used by the younger members of a religious community for their elders, and so, in the regula of St Benedict, cap. 62, Juniores autem Priores suos nonnos vocant quod intelligitur paterna reverentia (Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. nonnus). While nonna has remained as the generic name of a female religious, nonnus has been replaced by monachus and its various derivatives (see MONK). NUNATAK, a name applied in Greenland (and thence extended in use elsewhere) to a hill or mountain peak appearing above the surface of a glacier. Greenland is for the most part covered by an ice-cap of a certain thickness which moves slowly downwards to the sea. It will rise upwards and pass over a barrier if there is no outlet, but it will flow between and around mountain peaks leaving them standing as hills (nunataks) above the general surface of the ice-cap. These prominences are sometimes covered with arctic vegetation, and arctic flowers bloom freely upon them in the summer. NUNCIO, or NUNTJUS APOSTOLICUS, a representative of the pope sent on diplomatic mission. The nuncios are of lower rank than the legati a latere, but have practically superseded them as ambassadors of the papacy. Nuncios were permanently established at various courts and ecclesiastical centres during the 16th century. According to the decision of the congress of Vienna the diplomatic rank of a papal nuncio corresponds to that of an ambassador. The powers of a nuncio are limited by his instructions. If a cardinal, as rarely is the case, he uses the title pro-nuntius. The pro-nuntius at Vienna has practically the position of a legatus a latere. NUNCOMAR or NANDA KUMAR (d. 1775), Indian official, best known for his connexion with Warren Hastings (q.v.), was governor of Hugli in 1756, and in 1764 he was appointed collector of Burdwan in place of Hastings, which resulted in a long-standing enmity. In 1775, when Hastings was governor-general, Nuncomar brought accusations of peculation against him, which were entertained by Francis and the other members of Council inimical to Hastings. While the matter was still pending Nuncomar was ir dicted for forgery, condemned and executed. Warren Hastings and Sir Elijah Impey, the chief justice, were both impeached, and were accused by Burke and afterwards by Macaulay of committing a judicial murder; but Sir James Stephen, who examined the trial in detail, states that the indictment for forgery arose in the ordinary course, was not brought fairness and impartiality. forward by Hastings, and that Impey conducted the trial with See Sir James Stephen, The Story of Nuncomar (2 vols., 1885); and, for another treatment of the case, H. Beveridge, The Trial of Nanda Kumar (Calcutta, 1886). NUNEATON, a market town and municipal borough in the Nuneaton parliamentary division of Warwickshire, England, on the river Anker, a tributary of the Tame, and on the Coventry canal. It is an important junction of the London and North Western railway, by which it is 97 m. N.W. from London, and | it is served by the Leicester-Birmingham branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 24,996, rapidly increasing. The situation is low and almost encircled by rising ground. The church of St Nicholas is a large and handsome structure in various styles of architecture, and consists of nave, chancel and aisles, with a square embattled tower having pinnacles at the angles. It contains several interesting monuments. A free grammar school was founded in the reign of Edward VI., and an English free school for the instruction of forty boys and thirty girls by Richard Smith in 1712. The ribbon industry is of less importance than formerly, but there are ironworks, cotton, hat, elastic and worsted factories, and tanneries; the making of drain-pipes, tiles and blue and red bricks is a considerable industry. In the neighbourhood there are also coal and ironstone mines. The prefix of the name of the town is derived from a priory of nuns founded here in 1150. In the reign of Henry III. a weekly market was granted to the prioress. Nuneaton was incorporated in 1907, and the corporation consists of a mayor, six aldermen and twelve councillors. Arca 10,597 acres. NUNEZ, PEDRO (PETRUS NONIUS) (1492-1577), Portuguese mathematician and geographer, was born at Alcacer do Sal, and died at Coimbra, where he was professor of mathematics He published several works, including a copiously-annotated translation of portions of Ptolemy (1537), and a treatise in two books, De arte atque ratione navigandi (1546). His clear statement of the scientific equipment of the early Portuguese explorers has become famous. A complete edition of all his writings appeared at Basel in 1592. See F. de B. Garcão-Stockler, Ensaio historico sobre a origem e progressos das mathematicas em Portugal (Paris, 1819); R. H. Major, Prince Henry the Navigator (London, 1868, p. 55). NUÑEZ CABEZA DE VACA, ALVARO (c. 1490-c. 1564), Spanish explorer, was the lieutenant of Pamfilo de Narvaez in the expedition which sailed from Spain in 1527; when Narvaez was lost in the Gulf of Mexico, Cabeza de Vaca succeeded in reaching the mainland somewhere to the west of the mouths of the Mississippi, and, striking inland with three companions, succeeded, after long wandering and incredible hardship, in reaching the city of Mexico in 1536. Returning to Spain in 1537, he was appointed" adelantado " or administrator of the province of Rio de la Plata in 1540. Sailing from Cadiz in the end of that year, after touching at Cananca (Brazil), he landed at the island of St Catharine in the end of March 1541. Leaving his ships to proceed to Buenos Aires, he set out in November with about 150 men to find his way overland to Ascension (Asunción) for the relief of his countrymen there. The little band reached their destination in the following year. After various successes in war and diplomacy in his dealings with the Indians, Nuñez was sent home under arrest in 1544, and in 1551 was banished to Africa by the council of the Indies for eight years. He was recalled in about a year and appointed to a judgeship in Seville, where he died not later than 1564. The Naufragios ("Shipwrecks") of Cabeza de Vaca, which relate to the Florida expedition and his journey to the city of Mexico, appeared at Zamora in 1542; the work has frequently been reprinted, and an annotated English translation was published by T. Buckingham Smith in 1851. His Comentarios (1555) chronicle the events of the South American expedition. See Fanny Bandelier, Journey of A. Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca (ed. A. F. Bandelier, New York, 1905). NUÑEZ DE ARCE, GASPAR (1834-1903), Spanish poet, dramatist and statesman, was born at Valladolid, where he was educated for the priesthood. He had no vocation for the ecclesiastical state, plunged into literature, and produced a play entitled Amor y Orgullo which was acted at Toledo in 1849 To the displeasure of his father, an official in the post office, the youth refused to enter the seminary, and escaped to Madrid, where he obtained employment on the staff of El Observador, a Liberal newspaper He afterwards founded El Bachiller Honduras, a journal in which he advocated a policy of Liberal concentration, and he attracted sufficient notice to justify his appointment as governor of Logroño, and his nomination as deputy for Valladolid in 1865 He was imprisoned at Cáceres for his violent attacks on the reactionary ministry of Narvat, acted as secretary to the revolutionary Junta of Catalonia when Isabella was dethroned, and wrote the " Manifesto to the Nation" published by the provisional government on the 26th of October 1868. During the next few years he practically withdrew from political life till the restoration, when he attached himself to Sagasta's party. He served under Sagasta as minister for the colonies, the interior, the exchequer and education; but health compelled him to resign on the 27th of July 1800, and henceforth he refused to take office again. He was elected to the Spanish Academy on the 8th of January 1874 and was appointed a life-senator in 1886. He died at Madrid on the 12th of February 1903. remained faithful to the stage for nearly a quarter of a century. Nuñez de Arce first came into notice as a dramatist, and be In addition to three plays written in collaboration with Antonio Hurtado, he produced ¿Quién es el autor? (1859), La Cuenta de Zapatero (1859), ¡Como se empeña un marido! (1860), Deudas de la honra (1863), Ni tanto ni tan poco (1865), Quien debe, pag was more lyrical than dramatic, and his celebrity dates from the (1867) and El haz de leña (1872). But Nuñez de Arce's talent appearance of Gritos del combate (1875), a collection of poems exhorting Spaniards to lay aside domestic quarrels and to save their country from anarchy, more dangerous than a foreign foe. rival of Campoamor by a series of philosophic,elegiac and symbolic He maintained his position (in popular esteem) as the only possible poems:-Raimundo Lulio, Ultima lamentación de Lord Byres (1879), Un Idilio y una Elegia (1879), La Selva oscura (1879) and La Visión de Fray Martín (1880). The old brilliance sets Maruja (1886). The list of his works is completed by Poemas cortos off the naturalistic observation of La Pesca (1884) and La (1895) and Sursum cordal (1900); Hernán el lobo, published in El Liberal (January 23, 1881) and Luzbel remain unfinished. His strength lies in the graciousness of his vision, his sincerity and command of his instrument; his weakness derives from his rhetorical facility. But at his best, as in the Gritos del combate, divided sympathies, his moods of obvious sentiment and his he is a master of virile music and patriotic doctrine. (J. F.-K.) province of Sassari, 384 m. E. of Macomer by rail. Pop. (1901) NUORO, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia, Italy, in the 6739. It is situated 1905 ft. above sea-level in the east central portion of the island, amid fine scenery. Nuoro was the capital of a province from 1848 to 1860. It is connected by road with Fonni, Bitti and Orosei. An inscription discovered in situ about 13 m. W. of Nuoro in 1889, near Orotelli, has the letters FIN NVRR (fin(es)Nurr...), which are explained as referring showing (what was not known before) that the name and the to the boundaries of the territory of Nuoro in Roman times, place are of Roman origin (F. Vivanet in Notizie degli scavi, 1889, 202). NUPE, formerly an independent state of W. Africa, now a (T. As.) Nupe occupied both banks of the Niger for a distance of some province in the British protectorate of Nigeria. Under Fula rule, 150 m. above the Benue confluence. Only the part of Nupe north of the Niger now constitutes the province; area 6400 sq. m.; estimated pop about 150,000. It is in many portions highly cultivated, and owing to its admirable water supply is likely to prove particularly valuable as a field for the extensive cultivation 1907-1908) with Baro, a port on the Niger 70 m. above Lokoja. of cotton. Bida (q.v.), the capital, is connected by railway (built which the leading features were adopted by the Fula when their Nupe had an ancient and very interesting constitution of rule was established about the year 1859. Bida was founded Company in 1897, and the legal status of slavery was then in that year Nupe was conquered by the troops of the Niger nominally abolished. The company was, however, unable to occupy the country, and on the withdrawal of its troops the deposed emir returned Nupe a second time In 1901 it became necessary to subdue British troops marched to Bida. emir fled without hghting and was deposed. Another emir The British crown, and worked cordially with the British resident was appointed in his place, took the oath of allegiance to the |