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body. The general colour is dark umber-brown, almost black | of the 17th century. Some of these Indian muslins were very on the back and grey below. The tail and naked parts of the feet are black. The musky odour from which it derives its name is due to the secretion of a large gland situated in the inguinal region, and present in both sexes.

The ordinary musk-rat is one of several species of a genus peculiar to America, where it is distributed in suitable localities in the northern part of the continent, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Rio Grande to the barren grounds bordering the Arctic seas. It lives on the shores of lakes and rivers, swimming and diving with facility, feeding on the roots, stems and leaves of water-plants, or on fruits and vegetables which grow near the margin of the streams it inhabits. Musk-rats are most active at night, spending the greater part of the day concealed in their burrows in the bank, which consist of a chamber with numerous passages, all of which open under the surface of the water. For winter quarters they build more elaborate houses of conical or dome-like form, composed of sedges, grasses and similar materials plastered together with mud. As their fur is an important article of commerce, large numbers are annually killed, being either trapped or speared at the mouths of their holes. (See also RODENTIA.)

MUSK-SHREW, a name for any species of the genus Crocidura of the family Soricidae (see INSECTIVORA). The term is generally used of the common grey musk-shrew (C. coerulea) of India. Dr Dobson believed this to be a semi-domesticated variety of the brown musk-shrew (C. murina), which he considered the original wild type. The head and body of a full-grown specimen measure about 6 in.; the tail is rather more than half that length; and bluish-grey is the usual colour of the fur, which is paler on the under surface. Dr Blanford states that the story of wine or beer becoming impregnated with a musky taint in consequence of this shrew passing over the bottles, is less credited in India than formerly owing to the discovery that liquors bottled in Europe and exported to India are not liable to be thus tainted. MUSLIM IBN AL-HAJJĀJ, the Imam, the author of one of the two books of Mahommedan tradition called Şahiḥ, "sound," was born at Nishapur at some uncertain date after A.D. 815 and died there in 875. Like al-Bukhari (q.v.), of whom he was a close and faithful friend, he gave himself to the collecting, sifting and arranging of traditions, travelling for the purpose as far as Egypt. It is plain that his sympathies were with the traditionalist school or opposed to that which sought to build up the system of canon law on a speculative basis (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). But though he was a student and friend of Aḥmad ibn Hanbal (q.v.) he did not go in traditionalism to the length of some, and he defended al-Bukhari when the latter was driven from Nishapur for refusing to admit that the utterance (lafz) of the Koran by man was as uncreated as the Koran itself (see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION; and Patton's Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 32 sqq.). His great collection of traditions is second in popularity only to that of al-Bukhārī, and is commonly regarded as more accurate and reliable in details, especially names. His object was more to weed out illegitimate accretions than to furnish a traditional basis for a system of law. Therefore, though he arranged his material according to such a system, he did not add guiding rubrics, and he regularly brought together in one place the different parallel versions of the same tradition. His book is thus historically more useful, but legally less suggestive. His biographers give almost no details as to his life, and its early part was probably very obscure. One gives a list of as many as twenty works, but only his Şahiḥ seems to have reached us. See further, de Slane's transl. of Ibn Khallikan, iii. 348 sqq, and of Ibn Khaldun's Prolégomènes, ii. 470, 475; Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, ii. 245 sqq., 255 sqq.: Brockelmann, Geschichte der arab. Litt., i. 760 seq.; Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, 80, 147 seq.; Dhahabi Tadhkira (edit. of Hyderabad), ii. 165 sqq. (D. B. MA.) MUSLIN (through Fr. mousseline from It. mussolino, diminutive of Mussolo, i.e. the town Mosul in Kurdistan) a light cotton cloth said to have been first made at Mosul, a city of Mesopotamia. Muslins have been largely made in various parts of India, whence they were imported to England towards the end

fine and costly. Among the specialties are Arni muslin, made in the Madras presidency, and Dacca muslin, made at Dacca in Bengal. Muslins of many kinds are now made in Europe and America, and the name is applied to both plain and fancy cloths, and to printed calicoes of light texture. Swiss muslin is a light variety, woven in stripes or figures, originally made in Switzerland. Book muslin is made in Scotland from very fine yarns. Mulls, jaconets, lenos, and other cloths exported to the East and elsewhere are sometimes described as muslins. Muslin is used for dresses, blinds, curtains, &c.

MUSONIUS RUFUS, a Roman philosopher of the 1st century A.D., was born in Etruria about A.D. 20-30. He fell under the ban of Nero owing to his ethical teachings, and was exiled to the island of Gyarus on a trumped-up charge of participation in Piso's conspiracy. He returned under Galba, and was the friend of Vitellius and Vespasian. It was he who dared to bring an accusation against P. Egnatius Celer (the Stoic philosopher whose evidence had condemned his patron and disciple Soranus) and who endeavoured to preach a doctrine of peace and goodwill among the soldiers of Vespasian when they were advancing upon Rome. So highly was he esteemed in Rome that Vespasian made an exception in his case when all other philosophers were expelled from the city. As to his death, we know only that he was not living in the reign of Trajan. His philosophy, which is in most respects identical with that of his pupil, Epictetus, is marked by its strong practical tendency. Though he did not altogether neglect logic and physics, he maintained that virtue is the only real aim of men. This virtue is not a thing of precept and theory but a practical, living reality. It is identical with philosophy in the true sense of the word, and the truly good man is also the true philosopher.

Suidas attributes numerous works to him, amongst others a number of letters to Apollonius of Tyana. The letters are certainly unauthentic; about the others there is no evidence. His views were collected by Claudius (or Valerius) Pollio, who wrote "Axoμνημονεύματα Μουσωνίου τοῦ φιλοσόφου, from which Stobacus obtained his information. See Ritter and Preller §§ 477, 488, 489; Tacitus, Annois, xv. 71 and Histories, iii. 81; and compare articles STOICS and EPICTETUS.

MUSPRATT, JAMES (1793-1886), British chemical manufacturer, was born in Dublin on the 12th of August 1793. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a wholesale druggist, but his apprenticeship was terminated in 1810 by a quarrel with his master, and in 1812 he went to Spain to take part in the Peninsular War. Lack of influence prevented him from getting a commission in the cavalry, but he followed the British army on foot far into the interior, was laid up with fever at Madrid, and, narrowly escaping capture by the French, succeeded in making his way to Lisbon. There he joined the navy, but after taking part in the blockade of Brest he was led to desert, through the harshness of the discipline on the second of the two ships in which he served. Returning to Dublin about 1814, he began the manufacture of chemical products, such as hydrochloric and acetic acids and turpentine, adding prussiate of potash a few years later. He also had in view the manufacture of alkali from common salt by the Leblanc process, but on the one hand he could not command the capital for the plant, and on the other saw that Dublin was not well situated for the experi ment. In 1822 he went to Liverpool, which was at once a good port and within easy reach of salt and coal, and took a lease of an abandoned glass-works on the bank of the canal in Vauxhall Road. At first he confined himself to prussiate of potash, until in 1823, when the tax on salt was reduced from 15s. to 25. a bushel, his profits enabled him to erect lead-chambers for making the sulphuric acid necessary for the Leblanc process. In 1828 he built works at St Helen's and in 1830 at Newton; at the latter place he was long harassed by litigation on account of the damage done by the hydrochloric acid emitted from his factory, and finally in 1850 he left it and started new works at Widnes and Flint. In 1834-1835, in conjunction with Charles Tennant, he purchased sulphur mines in Sicily, to provide the raw material for his sulphuric acid; but on the imposition of the Neapolitan

government of a prohibitive duty on sulphur Muspratt found | horny threads by which the sea mussel (like many other Lamellia substitute in iron pyrites, which was thus introduced as the raw material for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. He was always anxious to employ the best scientific advice available and to try every novelty that promised advantage. He was a close friend of Liebig, whose mineral manures were compounded at his works. He died at Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool, on the 4th of May 1886. After his retirement in 1857 his business was continued in the hands of four of his ten children.

His eldest son, JAMES SHERIDAN MUSPRATT (1821-1871), studied chemistry under Thomas Graham at Glasgow and London and under Liebig at Giessen, and in 1848 founded the Liverpool College of Chemistry, an institution for training chemists, of which he also acted as director. From 1854 to 1860 he was occupied in preparing a dictionary of Chemistry... as applied and relating to the Arts and Manufactures, which was translated into German and Russian, and he published a translation of Plattner's treatise on the blow-pipe in 1845, and Outlines of Analysis in 1849. His original work included a research on the sulphites (1845), and the preparation of toluidine and nitro-aniline in 1845-1846 with A. W. Hofmann.

MUSSCHENBROEK, PIETER VAN (1692-1761), Dutch natural philosopher, was born on the 14th of March 1692 at Leiden, where his father Johann Joosten van Musschenbroek (1660-1707) was a maker of physical apparatus. He studied at the university of his native city, where he was a pupil and friend of W. J. s'G. Gravesande. Graduating in 1715 with a dissertation, De aeris praesentia in humoribus animalium, Mus- | schenbroek was appointed professor at Duisburg in 1719. In 1723 he was promoted to the chair of natural philosophy and mathematics at Utrecht. In 1731 he declined an invitation to Copenhagen, and was promoted in consequence to the chair of astronomy at Utrecht in 1732. The attempt of George II. of England in 1737 to attract him to the newly-established university of Göttingen was also unsuccessful. At length, however, the claims of his native city overcame his resolution to remain at Utrecht, and he accepted the mathematical chair at Leiden in 1739, where, declining all offers from abroad, he remained till his death on the 9th of September 1761.

His first important production was Epitome elementorum physicomathematicorum (12mo, Leiden, 1726)-a work which was afterwards gradually altered as it passed through several editions, and which appeared at length (posthumously, ed. by Johann Lulofs, one of his colleagues as Leiden) in 1762, under the title of Introductio ad philosophiam naturalem. The Physicae experimentales et, geometricae dissertationes (1729) threw new light on magnetism, capillary attraction, and the cohesion of bodies. A Latin edition with notes (1731) of the Italian work Saggi di naturali esperienze fatte nelll'Accademia del Cimento contained among many other investigations a description of a new instrument, the pyrometer, which Musschenbroek had invented, and of several experiments which he had made on the expansion of bodies by heat. Musschenbroek was also the author of Elementa physica (8vo, 1729), and his name is associated with the invention of the Leyden jar (q.v.).

MUSSEL (O. Eng. muscle, Lat. musculus, diminutive of mus, mouse, applied to small sea fish and mussels), a term applied in England to two families of Lamellibranch Molluscs-the marine Mytilacea, of which the edible mussel, Mytilus edulis, is the representative; and the fresh-water Unionidae, of which the river mussel, Unio pictorum, and the swan mussel, Anodonta cygnea, are the common British examples. It is not obvious why these fresh-water forms have been associated popularly with the Mytilacea under the name mussel, unless it be on account of the frequently very dark colour of their shells. They are somewhat remote from the sea mussels in structure, and have not even a common economic importance.

branch or bivalve molluscs) fixes itself to stones, rocks or submerged wood, but is not a permanent means of attachment, since it can be discarded by the animal, which, after a certain amount of locomotion, again fixes itself by new secretion of byssus fror the foot. Such movement is more frequent in young mussels than in the full-grown. Mytilus possesses no siphonal tube-like productions of the margin of the mantle-skirt, nor any notching of the same, representative of the siphons which are found in its fresh-water ally, the Dreissensia polymorpha.

Mytilus edulis is an exceedingly abundant and widely distri buted form. It occurs on both sides of the northern Atlantic and in the Mediterranean basin. It presents varieties of form and colour according to the depth of water and other circumstances of its habitat. Usually it is found on the British coast encrusting rocks exposed at low tides, or on the flat surfaces formed by sandbanks overlying clay, the latter kind of colonies being known locally as "scalps." Under these conditions it forms continuous masses of individuals closely packed together, sometimes extending over many acres of surface and numbering millions. The readiness with which the young Mytilus attaches itself to wicker-work is made the means of artificially cultivating and securing these molluscs for the market both in the Bay of Kiel in North Germany and at the mouth of the Somme and other spots on the coast of France.

Natural scalps are subject to extreme vicissitudes: an area of many acres may be destroyed by a local change of current producing a deposit of sand or shingle over the scalp, or by exposure to frost at low tide in winter, or by accumulation of decomposing vegetable matter. The chief localities of natural scalps on the British coast are Morecambe Bay in Lancashire and the flat eastern shores, especially that of the Wash of Lincoln, and similar shallow bays. These scalps are in some cases in the hands of private owners, and the Fisheries Department has made arrangements by which some local authorities, e.g. the corporation of Boston, can lease layings to individuals for the purpose of artificial cultivation.

The sea mussel is scarcely inferior in commercial value to the oyster. In 1873 the value of mussels exported from Antwerp alone to Paris to be used as human food was £280,000. In Britain their chief consumption is in the deep-sea line fishery, where they are held to be the most effective of all baits. Twenty-eight boats engaged in haddock-fishing at Eyemouth used between October 1882 and May 1883 920 tons of mussels (about 47,000,000 individuals), costing nearly £1800 to the fishermen, about one-half of which sum was expended on the carriage of the mussels. The quantity of mussels landed on Scottish coasts has decreased in recent years owing to the decline in the line fisheries. In 1896 the quantity was over 243,000 cwts., valued at £14.950; in 1902 it was only 95,663 cwts., valued at £5976. In the statistics for England and Wales mussels are not separately distinguished. Many thousand tons of mussels are wastefully employed as manure by the farmers on lands adjoining scalp-producing coasts, as in Lancashire and Norfolk, three half-pence a bushel being the price quoted in such cases. It is a curious fact, illustrative of the ignorant procedure and arbitrary fashions of fisher-folk, that on the Atlantic seaboard of the United States the sea mussel, Mytilus edulis, though common, is not used as bait nor as food. Instead, the soft clam, Mya arenaria, a Lamellibranch not used by English or Norwegian fishermen, though abundant on their shores, is employed as bait by the fishermen to the extent of 1 million bushels per annum, valued at £120,000. At the mouth of the river Conway in North Wales the sea mussel is crushed in large quantities in order to extract pearls of an inferior quality which are occasionally found in these as in other Lamellibranch molluscs (Gwyn Jeffreys).

Mytilus edulis is considered of fair size for eating when it is 2 in. in length, which size is attained in three years after the spat or young mussel has fixed itself. Under favourable circumstances it will grow much larger than this, specimens being recorded of 9 in. in length. It is very tolerant of fresh water, fattening best, as does the oyster, in water of density 1014 (the density of the water of the North Sea being 1026). Experiments made by removing mussels from salt water to brackish, and finally to quite fresh oyster; of thirty mussels so transferred all were alive after fifteen days. Mytilus edulis is occasionally poisonous, owing to conditions not satisfactorily determined.

The sea mussel (Mytilus edulis) belongs to the second order of the class Lamellibranchia (q.v.), namely the Filibranchia, distinguished by the comparatively free condition of the gillfilaments, which, whilst adhering to one another to form gill-water show that it is even more tolerant of fresh water than the plates, are yet not fused to one another by concrescence. It is also remarkable for the small size of its foot and the large development of two glands in the foot-the byssus-forming and the byssus-cementing glands. The byssus is a collection of

The fresh-water Mussels, Anodonta cygnea,. Unio pictorum,

and Unio margaritiferus belong to the order Eulamellibranchia | works. The fishery is confined to Fisherrow, where there is of Lamellibranch Molluscs, in which the anterior and posterior a good harbour. The Links are the scene every year of the adductor muscles are equally developed. An account of the Edinburgh race meetings and of those of the Royal Caledonian anatomy of Anodon is given in the article LAMELLIBRANCHIA. Hunt which are held every third year. Archery contests also Unio differs in no important point from Anodonta in internal take place at intervals under the auspices of the Royal Company structure. The family Unionidae, to which these genera belong, of Archers. Most of the charitable institutions-for instance, is of world-wide distribution, and its species occur only in ponds the convalescent home, fever hospital, home for girls and Red and rivers. A vast number of species arranged in several genera House home-are situated at Inveresk, about 1 m. up the Esk. and sub-genera have been distinguished, but in the British About 1 m. south-east is the site of the battle of Pinkie, Islands the three species above named are the only claimants to and 24 m. south-east, on the verge of Haddingtonshire, is the title of "fresh-water mussel." Carberry Hill, where Mary surrendered to the lords of the Congregation in 1567, the spot being still known as Queen Mary's Mount. Musselburgh joins with Leith and Portobello (the Leith Burghs) in returning one member to parliament.

Anodonta cygnea, the Pond Mussel or Swan Mussel, appears to be entirely without economic importance. Unio pictorum, the common river mussel (Thames), appears to owe its name to the fact that the shells were used at one time for holding water-colour paints as now shells of this species and of the sea mussel are used for holding gold and silver paint sold by artists' colourmen, but it has no other economic value. Unio margaritiferus, the pearl mussel, was at one time of considerable importance as a source of pearls, and the pearl mussel fishery is to this day carried on under peculiar state regulations in Sweden and Saxony, and other parts of the continent. In Scotland and Ireland the pearl mussel fishery was also of importance, but has altogether dwindled into insignificance since the opening up of commercial intercourse with the East and with the islands of the Pacific Ocean, whence finer and more abundant pearls than those of Unio margaritiferus are derived.

cod fishery.

In the last forty years of the 18th century pearls were exported from the Scotch fisheries to Paris to the value of £100,000; round pearls, the size of a pea, perfect in every respect, were worth £3 or £4. The pearl mussel was formerly used as bait in the Aberdeen LITERATURE. For an account of the anatomy of Mytilus edulis the reader is referred to the treatise by Sabatier on that subject (Paris, 1875). The essay by Charles Harding on Molluscs used for Food or Bait, published by the committee of the London International Fisheries Exhibition (1883), may be consulted as to the economic questions connected with the sea mussel. The development of this species is described by Wilson in Fifth Ann. Rep. Scot. Fish. Board (1887). (E. R. L.; J. T. C.)

MUSSET, LOUIS CHARLES ALFRED DE (1810-1857), French poet, play-writer and novelist, was born on the 11th of December 1810 in a house in the middle of old Paris, near the Hôtel Cluny. His father, Victor de Musset, who traced his descent back as far as 1140, held several ministerial posts of importance. He brought out an edition of J. J. Rousseau's works in 1821, and followed it soon after with a volume on the Genevan's life and writing. In Alfred de Musset's childhood there were various things which fostered his imaginative power. He and his brother Paul (born 1804, died 1880), who afterwards wrote a biography of Alfred, delighted in reading old romances together, and in assuming the characters of the heroes in those romances. But it was not until about 1826 that Musset gave any definite sign of the mental force which afterwards distinguished him. In the summer of 1827 he won the second prize (at the Collège Henri IV.) by an essay on "The Origin of our Feelings." In 1828, when Eugène Scribe, Joseph Duveyrier, who under the name of Mélesville, was a prolific playwriter and sometimes collaborator with Scribe, and others of note were in the habit of coming to Mme de Musset's house at Auteuil, where drawing-room MUSSELBURGH, a municipal and police burgh of Midlothian, plays and charades were constantly given, Musset, excited Scotland, 5 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. by this companionship, wrote his first poem. This, to judge Pop. (1901), 11,711. The burgh, which stretches for a mile from the extracts preserved, was neither better nor worse than along the south shore of the Firth of Forth, is intersected by the much other work of clever boys who may or may not afterwards Esk and embraces the village of Fisherrow on the left bank of turn out to be possessed of genius. He took up the study of the river. Its original name is said to have been Eskmouth, its law, threw it over for that of medicine, which he could not present one being derived from a bed of mussels at the mouth of endure, and ended by adopting no set profession. Shortly the river. While preserving most of the ancient features of its after his first attempt in verse he was taken by Paul Foucher High Street, the town has tended to become a suburb of the to Victor Hugo's house, where he met such men as Alfred de capital, its fine beach and golf course hastening this development. Vigny, Prosper Mérimée, Charles Nodier and Sainte-Beuve. It The public buildings include the town-hall (dating from 1762 and was under Hugo's influence, no doubt, that he composed a altered in 1876), the tolbooth (1590), and the grammar school. play. The scene was laid in Spain, and some lines, showing Loretto School, one of the foremost public schools in Scotland, a marked advance upon his first effort, are preserved. In occupies the site of the chapel of Our Lady of Loretto, which 1828, when the war between the classical and the romantic was founded in 1534 by Thomas Duthie, a hermit from Mt school of literature was growing daily more serious and exciting, Sinai. This was the favourite shrine of Mary of Guise, who Musset had published some verses in a country newspaper, betook herself hither at momentous crises in her history. The and boldly recited some of his work to Sainte-Beuve, who 1st earl of Hertford destroyed it in 1544, and after it was rebuilt wrote of it to a friend," There is amongst us a boy full of genius." the Reformers demolished it again, some of its stones being At eighteen years old Musset produced a translation, with used in erecting the tolbooth. In the west end of the town is additions of his own, of De Quincey's "Opium-Eater." This Pinkie House, formerly a seat of the abbot of Dunfermline, was published by Mame, attracted no attention, and has been but transformed in 1613 by Lord Seton. It is a fine example long out of print. His first original volume was published in of a Jacobean mansion, with a beautiful fountain in the 1829 under the name of Contes d'Espagne et d'Italie, had an middle of the court-yard. The painted gallery, with an elabor-immediate and striking success, provoked bitter opposition, ate ceiling, 100 ft. long, was utilized as a hospital after the battle of Pinkie in 1547. Prince Charles Edward slept in it the night following the fight at Prestonpans (1745). Near the tolbooth stands the market cross, a stone column with a unicorn on the top supporting the burgh arms. At the west end of High Street is a statue of David Macbeth Moir ("Delta," 1798-1851), Musselburgh's most famous son. The antiquity of the town is placed beyond doubt by the Roman bridge across the Esk and the Roman remains found in its vicinity. The chief bridge, which carries the high road from Edinburgh to Berwick, was built by John Rennie in 1807. The principal industries include paper-making, brewing, the making of nets and twine, bricks, tiles and pottery, tanning and oil-refining, besides saltworks and seed-crushing

and produced many unworthy imitations. This volume contained, along with far better and more important things, a fantastic parody in verse on certain productions of the romantic school, which made a deal of noise at the time. This was the famous "Ballade à la lune" with its recurring comparison of the moon shining above a steeple to the dot over an i. It was, to Musset's delight, taken quite seriously by many worthy folk.

In December 1830 Musset was just twenty years old, and was already conscious of that curious double existence within him so frequently symbolized in his plays-in Octave and Célio for instance (in Les Caprices de Marianne), who also stand for the two camps, the men of matter and the men of feelingwhich he has elsewhere described as characteristic of his

generation. At this date his piece the Nuit vénitienne was produced by Harel, manager of the Odéon. The exact causes of its failure might now be far to seek; unlucky stage accidents had something to do with it, but there seems reason to believe that there was a strongly organized opposition. However this may be, the result was disastrous to the French stage; for it put a complete damper on the one poet who, as he afterwards showed both in theoretical and in practical writings, had the fine insight which took in at a glance the merits and defects both of the classical and of the romantic schools. Thus he was strong and keen to weld together the merits of both schools in a new method which, but for the fact that there has been no successor to grasp the wand which its originator wielded, might well be called the school of Musset. The serious effect produced upon Musset by the failure of his Nuit vénitienne is curiously illustrative of his character. A man of greater strength and with equal belief in his own genius might have gone on appealing to the public until he compelled them to hear him. Musset gave up the attempt in disgust, and waited until the public were eager to hear him without any invitation on his part. In the case of his finest plays this did not happen until after his death; but long before that he was fully recognized as a poet of the first rank and as an extraordinary master of character and language in prose writing. In his complete disgust with the stage after the failure above referred to there was no doubt something of a not ignoble pride, but there was something also of weaknessof a kind of weakness out of which it must be said sprang some of his most exquisite work, some of the poems which could only have been written by a man who imagined himself the crushed victim of difficulties which were old enough in the experience of mankind, though for the moment new and strange to him.

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scenes for the swift destruction of the end is very marked. But Les Caprices de Marianne is perhaps for this particular purpose of illustration the most compact and most typical of all.

The appearance of Les Caprices de Marianne in the Revue (1833) was followed by that of " Rolla," a symptom of the maladie du siècle. Rolla, for all the smack which is not to be denied of Wertherism, has yet a decided individuality. The poem was written at the beginning of Musset's liaison with George Sand, and in December 1833 Musset started on the unfortunate journey to Italy. It was well known that the rupture of what was for a time a most passionate attachment had a disastrous effect upon Musset, and brought out the weakest side of his moral character. He was at first absolutely and completely struck down by the blow. But it was not so well known until Paul de Musset pointed it out that the passion expressed in the Nuit de décembre, written about twelve months after the journey to Italy, referred not to George Sand but to another and quite a different woman. The story of the Italian journey and its results are told under the guise of fiction from two points of view in the two volumes called respectively Elle et lui by George Sand, and Lui et elle by Paul de Musset. As to the permanent effect on Alfred de Musset, whose irresponsible gaiety was killed by the breaking off of the connexion, there can be no doubt.

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During Musset's absence in Italy Fantasio was published in the Revue, Lorenzaccio is said to have been written at Venice, and not long after his return On ne badine pas avec l'amour was written and published in the Revue. In 1835 he produced Lucie, La Nuit de mai, La Quenouille de Barberine, Le Chandelier, La Loi sur la presse, La Nuit de décembre, and La Confession d'un enfant du siècle, wherein it contained what is probably a true account of Musset's relations with George Sand. The Confession is exceptionally interesting as exhibiting the poet's frame of mind at the time, and the approach to a revulsion from the Bonapartist ideas amid which he had been brought up in his childhood. To the supreme power of Napoleon he in this work attributed that moral sickness of the time which he described. "One man," he wrote, absorbed the whole life of Europe; the rest of the human race struggled to fill their lungs with the air that he had breathed." When the emperor fell, "a ruined world was a resting-place for a generation weighted with care." The Confession is further important, apart from its high literary merit, as exhibiting in many passages the poet's tendency to shun or wildly protest against all that is disagreeable or difficult in human life-a tendency to which, however, much of his finest work was due. To 1836 belong the Nuit d'août, the Lettre à Lamartine, the Stances à la Malibran, the comedy Ii ne faut jurer de rien, and the beginning of the brilliant letters of Dupuis and Cotonet on romanticism. Il ne faut jurer de rien is as typical of Musset's comedy work as is Les Caprices de Marianne of the work in which a terrible fatality underlies the brilliant dialogue and keen polished characterization. In 1837 was published Un Caprice, which afterwards found its way to the Paris stage by a curious Mme Allan-Despréaux, the actress, heard of it in St Petersburg as a Russian piece. On asking for a French translation of the play she received the volume Comédies et proverbes reprinted from the Revue des deux mondes. In 1837 appeared also some of the Nouvelles. In 1839 Musset began a romance called Le Poète déchu, of which the existing fragments are full of passion and insight. In 1840 he passed through a

Musset now belonged, in a not very whole-hearted fashion, to the "Cénacle," but the connexion came to an end in 1832. In 1833 he published the volume called Un Spectacle dans un fauteuil. One of the most striking pieces in this-"Namouna" -was written at the publisher's request to fill up some empty space; and this fact is noteworthy when taken in conjunction with the horror which Musset afterwards so often expressed of doing anything like writing "to order "-of writing, indeed, in any way or at any moment except when the inspiration or the fancy happened to seize him. The success of the volume seemed to be small in comparison with that of his Contes d'Espagne, but it led indirectly to Musset's being engaged as a contributor to the Revue des deux mondes. In this he published, in April 1833, André del Sarto, and he followed this six weeks later with Les Caprices de Marianne. This play afterwards took and holds rank as one of the classical pieces in the repertory of the Théâtre Français. After the retirement in 1887 from the stage of the brilliant actor Delaunay the piece dropped out of the Français repertory until it was replaced to the stage by M. Jules Claretie, administrator-general of the Comédie Française, on the 19th of January 1906. Les Caprices de Marianne affords a fine illustration of the method referred to above, a method of which Musset gave something like a definite explanation five years later. This explanation was also pub-road. lished in the Revue des deux mondes, and it set forth that the war between the classical and the romantic schools could never end in a definite victory for either school, nor was it desirable that it should so end. "It was time," Musset said, " for a third school which should unite the merits of each." And in Les Caprices de Marianne these merits are most curiously and happily combined. It has perhaps more of the Shakespearian quality-period of feeling that the public did not recognize his geniusthe quality of artfully mingling the terrible, the grotesque, and the high comedy tones-which exists more or less in all Musset's long and more serious plays, than is found in any other of these. The piece is called a comedy, and it owes this title to its extraordinary brilliance of dialogue, truth of characterization, and swiftness in action, under which there is ever latent a sense of impending date. Many of the qualities indicated are found in others of Musset's dramatic works and notably in On ne badine pas avec l'amour, where the skill in insensibly preparing his hearers or readers through a succession of dazzling comedy

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as, indeed, they did not-and wrote a very short but very
striking series of reflections headed with the words "A trente
ans," which Paul de Musset published in his Life. In 1841
there came out in the Revue de Paris Musset's "Le Rhin Alle-
mand," an answer to Becker's poem which appeared in the
Revue des deux mondes. This fine war-song made a great deal
of noise, and brought to the poet quantities of challenges from
German officers. Between this date and 1845 he wrote compara-
tively little. In the last named year the charming " proverbe
Il faut qu'une porte soit ouverte ou fermée appeared. In 1847

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Un Caprice was produced at the Théâtre Français, and the | entered the public service at an early age and rose rapidly, employment in it of such a word' as "rebonsoir" shocked some becoming ambassador at Paris in 1834 and in London 1836, of the old school. But the success of the piece was immediate minister for foreign affairs 1837, again ambassador in London and marked. It increased Musset's reputation with the public 1838, and in Paris 1841. Appointed vali of Adrianople in in á degree out of proportion to its intrinsic importance; 1843, he returned as ambassador to Paris in the same year. and indeed freed him from the burden of depression caused by Between 1845 and 1857 he was six times grand vizier. One of want of appreciation. In 1848 Il ne faut jurer de rien was the greatest and most brilliant statesmen of his time, thoroughly played at the Théâtre Français and the Chandelier at the Théâtre acquainted with European politics, and well versed in affairs, Historique. Between this date and 1851 Bettine was pro- he was a convinced if somewhat too ardent partisan of reform duced on the stage and Carmosine written; and between this and the principal author of the legislative remodelling of Turkish time and the date of his death, from an affection of the heart, administrative methods known as the Tanzimat. His ability on the 2nd of May 1857, the poet produced no large work of was recognized alike by friend and by foe. In the settlement importance. of the Egyptian question in 1840, and during the Crimean War and the ensuing peace negotiations, he rendered valuable services to the state.

Alfred de Musset now holds the place which Sainte-Beuve first accorded, then denied, and then again accorded to him as a poet of the first rank. He had genius, though not genius of that strongest kind which its possessor can always keep in check. His own character worked both for and against his success as a writer. He inspired a strong personal affection in his contemporaries. His very weakness and his own consciousness of it produced such beautiful work as, to take one instance, the Nuit d'octobre. His Nouvelles are extraordinarily brilliant; his poems are charged with passion, fancy and fine satiric power; in his plays he hit upon a method of his own, in which no one has dared or availed to follow him with any closeness. He was one of the first, most original, and in the end most successful of the first-rate writers included in the phrase "the 1830 period." The wilder side of his life has probably been exaggerated; and his brother Paul de Musset has given in his Biographie a striking testimony to the finer side of his character. In the later years of his life Musset was elected, not without opposition, a member of the French Academy. Besides the works above referred to, the Nouvelles et contes and the Euvres posthumes, in which there is much of interest concerning the great tragic actress Rachel, should be specially mentioned.

The biography of Alfred de Musset by his brother Paul, partial as it naturally is, is of great value. Alfred de Musset has afforded matter for many appreciations, and among these in English may be mentioned the sketch (1890) of C. F. Oliphant and the essay (1855) of F. T. Palgrave. See also the monograph by Arvède Barine (Madame Vincens) in the "Grands écrivains français' series. Musset's correspondence with George Sand was published intact for the first time in 1904. A monument to Alfred de Musset by Antonin Mercié, presented by M. Osiris, and erected on the Place du Théâtre Français, was duly "inaugurated" on the 24th of February 1906. The ceremony took place in the vestibule of the theatre, where speeches were delivered by Jules Claretie, François Coppée and others, and Mounet-Sully recited a poem, written for the occasion by Maurice Magre. (W. H. P.) MUSSOORIE, or MASURI, a town and sanitarium of British India, in the Dehra Dun district of the United Provinces, about 6600 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901), 6461, rising to 15,000 in the hot season. It stands on a ridge of one of the lower Himalayan ranges, amid beautiful mountain scenery, and forms with Naini Tal the chief summer resort for European residents in the plains of the United Provinces. The view from Mussoorie over the valley of the Dun and across the Siwalik hills to the plains is very beautiful, as also is the view towards the north, which is bounded by the peaks of the snowy range. Mussoorie practically forms one station with Landaur, the convalescent depot for European troops, 7362 ft. above the sea. Some distance off, on the road to Simla, is the cantonment of Chakrata, 7300 ft. It was formerly approached by road from Saharanpur in the plains, 58 m. distant, but in 1900 the railway was opened to Dehra, 21 m. by road. There are numerous schools for Europeans, including St George's college, the Philander-Smith institute, the Oak Grove school of the East Indian railway, and several Church of England and Roman Catholic institutions, together with a cathedral of the latter faith. The first brewery in India was established here in 1850. The town has botanical gardens, and is the summer headquarters of the Trigonometrical Survey.

MUSTAFA RESHID PASHA (1800-1858), Turkish statesman and diplomatist, was born at Constantinople in 1800. He

MUSTANG, the wild or semi-wild horse of the prairies of America, the descendant of the horses imported by the Spaniards after the conquest in the 16th century (see HORSE). The word appears to be due to two Spanish words, mestrenco, or mostrenco, defined by Minsheu (1599) as "a strayer." Mestrenco (now mesteno) means "wild, having no master," and appears to be derived from mesta, a grazier-association, which among other functions appropriated any wild cattle found with the herds. MUSTARD. The varieties of mustard-seed of commerce are produced from several species of the genus Brassica (a member of the natural order Cruciferae). Of these the principal are the black or brown mustard, Brassica nigra (Sinapis nigra), the white mustard, Brassica alba, and the Sarepta mustard, B. juncea. Both the white and black mustards are cultivated to some extent in various parts of England. The white is to be found in every garden as a salad plant; but it has come into increasing favour as a forage crop for sheep, and as a green manure, for which purpose it is ploughed down when about to come into flower. The black mustard is grown solely for its seeds, which yield the well-known condiment. The name of the tondiment was in French moustarde, mod. moutarde, as being made of the seeds of the plant pounded and mixed with must (Lat. mustum, i.e. unfermented wine). The word was thus transferred to the plant itself. When white mustard is cultivated for its herbage it is sown usually in July or August, after some early crop has been removed. The land being brought into a fine tilth, the seed, at the rate of 12 lb per acre, is sown broadcast, and covered in the way recommended for clover seeds. In about six weeks it is ready either for feeding off by sheep or for ploughing down as a preparative for wheat or barley. White mustard is not fastidious in regard to soil. When grown for a seed crop it is treated in the way about to be described for the other variety. For this purpose either kind requires a fertile soil, as it is an exhausting crop. The seed is sown in April, is once hoed in May, and requires no further culture. As soon as the pods have assumed a brown colour the crop is reaped and laid down in handfuls, which lie until dry enough for thrashing or stacking. In removing it from the ground it must be handled with great care, and carried to the thrashing-floor or stack on cloths, to avoid the loss of seed. The price depends much on its being saved in dry weather, as the quality suffers much from wet. This great evil attends its growth, that the seeds which are unavoidably shed in harvesting the crop remain in the soil, and stock it permanently with what proves a pestilent weed amongst future crops.

White mustard is used as a small salad-generally accompanied by garden cress-while still in the seed leaf. To keep up a supply the seed should be sown every week or ten days. The sowings in the open ground may be made from March till October, The ground should earlier or later according to the season. be light and rich, and the situation warm and sheltered. Sow thickly in rows 6 in. apart, and slightly cover the seed, pressing the surface smooth with the back of the spade. When gathering the crop, cut the young plants off even with the ground, or pull There were two kinds of mustum, one the best for keeping, produced after the first treading of the grapes, and called mustum, lixivum; the other, mustum tortivum, obtained from the mass of trodden grapes by the wine-press, was used for inferior purposes.

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