OBOK, a seaport on the north shore of the Gulf of Tajura, N.E. Africa, acquired by France in 1862. It gave its name to the colony of Obok, now merged in the French Somali coast protectorate (see SOMALILAND: French). The port is separated from the open sea by coral reefs, but is only partially sheltered from the winds. This led to the practical abandonment of the town by the French, who in 1896 transferred to Jibuti, on the opposite shore of the Gulf of Tajura, the seat of government of the colony. Obok is connected with Aden and Jibuti by submarine cables. Population about 500. OBRA, a river of Germany, in the Prussian province of Posen, a left-bank tributary of the Warthe. It rises near Obra, N.W. from Koschmin, and forms in its course marshes, lakes and the so-called Great Obrabruch (fen). The latter, 50 m. long and about 5 m. broad, is a deep depression in the undulating country of south-west Posen. The river is here dammed in and canalized and affords excellent water transit for the agricultural produce of the district. | the particular extract challenged as improper; and in practice it is difficult to induce juries to convict the publishers of wellknown and cld-established works of real literary quality on the ground that they contain passages offensive to modern notions of propriety. In the case of exhibitions of sculpture and pictures some difficulty is found in drawing the line between representations of the nude and works which fall within the definition above stated-a difficulty raised in a somewhat acute form before the London County Council in 1907 by theatrical representations of "living statuary." Besides the remedy by indictment there are statutory provisions for punishing as vagabonds persons who expose to public view in public streets or adjacent premises obscene prints, pictures or other indecent exhibitions. These are supplemented by similar provisions, applicable to the metropolis and to county towns, and (by a statute of 1889) for suppressing certain kinds of indecent advertisements. By an act of 1857 powers are given for searching premises on which obscene books, &c., are kept for sale, distribution, &c., and for ordering their destruction, and the post office authorities have power to seize postal packets containing such matter and to prosecute the sender. In 1906 the London publisher of a weekly comic paper was punished for inserting advertisements inviting readers to acquire by post from abroad matter of this kind. The use of obscene or indecent language in public places is punishable as a misdemeanour at common law, but it is usually dealt with summarily, under the Metropolitan Police Act 1839, or the Town Police Clauses Act 1847, or under local by-laws. British Possessions.-In British India obscene publications, ex O'BRIEN, WILLIAM SMITH (1803-1864), Irish revolutionary politician, son of Sir Edward O'Brien, a descendant of Brian Boroimhe (d. 1014), king of Ireland (see CLARE), was born in Co. Clare on the 17th of October 1803, and received his education at Harrow and at Cambridge. He took the additional name of Smith on inheriting his maternal grandfather's estates in Limerick. He entered parliament in 1828 as member for Ennis, and from 1835 to 1848 represented the county of Limerick. Although he spoke in 1828 in favour of Catholic emancipation, he for many years continued to differ on other points from the general policy of O'Connell. But he opposed the Irish Arms Act of 1843, and became an active member of the Repeal Associa-hibitions, &c., are punished under articles 292, 293 and 294 of the tion. Though he was destitute of oratorical gifts, his arraignment of the English government of Ireland secured him enthusiastic attachment as a popular leader. In July 1846 the "Young Ireland" party, with Smith O'Brien and' Gavan Duffy at their head, left the Repeal Association, and in the beginning of 1847 established the Irish Confederation. In May 1848 he was tried at Dublin for sedition, but the jury disagreed. In the following July he established a war directory, and attempted to make a rising among the peasantry of Ballingarry, but although he was at first joined by a large following the movement wanted cohesion, and the vacillating crowd dispersed as soon as news reached them of the approach of the dragoons. O'Brien was arrested at Thurles, tried and sentenced to death. The sentence was, however, commuted to transportation to Tasmania for life. In February 1854 he received his liberty on condition of never revisiting the United Kingdom; and in May 1856 he obtained a full pardon, and returned to Ireland. In 1856 he published Principles of Government, or Meditations in Exile. He died at Bangor, north Wales, on the 18th of June, 1864. He had five sons and two daughters. His eldest brother, Lucius, became 13th Baron Inchiquin in 1855, as heir male to the 3rd marquis of Thomond, at whose death in 1855 the marquisate of Thomond and the earldom of Inchiquin became extinct. (See INCHIQUIN, IST EARL OF.) OBSCENITY (from the adjective "obscene," Lat. obscenus, evil-looking, filthy). By English law it is an indictable misdemeanour to show an obscene exhibition or to publish any obscene matter, whether it be in writing or by pictures, effigy or otherwise. The precise meaning of "obscene" is, however, decidedly ambiguous. It has been defined as "something offensive to modesty or decency, or expressing or suggesting unchaste or lustful ideas or being impure, indecent or lewd." But the test of criminality as accepted in England and Canada is whether the exhibition or matter complained of tends to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to immoral influences and who are likely to visit the exhibition, or to see the matter published. If the exhibition or publication is calculated to have this effect, the motive of the publisher or exhibitor is immaterial. Even in the case of judicial proceedings, newspapers are not privileged to publish evidence which falls within the definition. In dealing with writings alleged to be obscene, the court and jury have to consider the effect of the whole work and not merely Penal Code. Special exception is made for representations in temples OBSEQUENS, JULIUS, a Latin writer of uncertain date, generally placed about the middle of the 4th century A.D. He is the author of a small extant work De prodigiis, taken from an epitome of Livy, and giving an account of the prodigies and portents that occurred in Rome between 249-12 B.C. The editio princeps was published by Aldus (1508); later editions by F. Oudendorp (1720) and O. Jahn (1853, with the periochae of Livy). OBSEQUIES (Med. Lat. obsequiae, formed after class. Lat. exsequiae), a term for funeral rites and ceremonies, especially such as are carried out with great ceremony. The Lat. obsequium (from obsequi, to follow close after) produced the obsolete English "obsequy," in the sense of ready complaisant service, especially of an inferior to a superior, still found in the adjective "obsequious." OBSERVATORY. Up to a comparatively recent date an "observatory" was a place exclusively devoted to the taking of astronomical observations, although frequently a rough account of the weather was kept. When the progress of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology began to make regular observations necessary, the duty of taking these was often thrown on astronomical observatories, although in some cases separate institutions were created for the purpose. In this article the astronomical observatories will be chiefly considered. Up to about 300 B.C. it can scarcely be said that an observatory existed anywhere, as the crude observations of the heavens then taken were only made by individuals and at intervals, employing the simplest possible apparatus. Thus, according to Strabo. Eudoxus had an observatory at Cnidus. But, when philo- | test the correctness of the theoretical conclusions drawn from sophical speculation had exhausted its resources, and an accumulation of facts was found to be necessary before the knowledge of the construction of the universe could advance farther, the first observatory was founded at Alexandria, and continued in activity for about four hundred years, or until the middle or end of the 2nd century of the Christian era. Hipparchus of Rhodes, the founder of modern astronomy, by repeating observations made at Alexandria, discovered the precession of the equinoxes, and investigated with considerable success the motions of the sun, moon and planets. His work was continued by more or less distinguished astronomers, until Ptolemy (in the 2nd century A.D.) gave the astronomy of Alexandria its final development. When science again began to be cultivated after the dark ages which followed, we find several observatorics founded by Arabian princes; first one at Damascus, next one at Bagdad built by the caliph Al-Mamun early in the 9th century, then one on the Mokattam near Cairo, built for Ibn Yunis by the caliph Hakim (about 1000 A.D.), where the Hakimite tables of the sun, moon and planets were constructed. The Mongol khans followed the example; thus arose the splendid observatory at Maragha in the north-west of Persia, founded about A.D. 1260 by Hulagu Khan, where Nasir Uddin constructed the Ilohkhanic tables; and in the 15th century the observatory at Samarkand was founded by Ulugh Beg, and served not only in the construction of new planetary tables but also in the formation of a new catalogue of stars. With the commencement of scientific studies in Europe in the 15th century the necessity of astronomical observations became at once felt, as they afforded the only hope of improving the theory of the motions of the celestial bodies. Although astronomy was taught in all universities, the taking of observations was for two hundred years left to private individuals. The first observatory in Europe was erected at Nuremberg in 1472 by a wealthy citizen, Bernhard Walther, who for some years enjoyed the co-operation of the celebrated astronomer Regiomontanus. At this observatory, where the work was continued till the founder's death in 1504, many new methods of observing were invented, so that the revival of practical astronomy may be dated from its foundation. The two celebrated observatories of the 16th century, Tycho Brahe's on the Danish island of Hven (in activity from 1576 to 1597) and that of Landgrave William IV. at Cassel (1561-1597), made a complete revolution in the art of observing. Tycho Brahe may claim the honour of having been the first to see the necessity of carrying on for a number of years an extensive and carefully-planned series of observations with various instruments, worked by himself and a staff of assistants. In this respect his observatory (Uraniburgum) resembles our modern larger institutions more closely than do many observatorics of much more recent date. The mighty impulse which Tycho Brahe gave to practical astronomy at last installed this science at the universities, among which those of Leiden and Copenhagen were the first to found observatorics. We still find a large private observatory in the middle of the 17th century, that of Johannes Hevelius at Danzig, but the foundation of the royal observatories at Paris and Greenwich and of numerous university observatories shows how rapidly the importance of observations had become recognized by governments and public bodies, and it is not until within the last hundred and thirty years that the development of various new branches of astronomy has enabled private observers to compete with public institutions. The instruments employed in observatories have of course changed considerably during the last two hundred years. When the first royal observatories were founded, the principal instruments were the mural quadrant for measuring meridian zenith distances of stars, and the sextant for measuring distances of stars inter se, with a view of determining their difference of right ascension by a simple calculation. These instruments were introduced by Tycho Brahe, but were subsequently much improved by the addition of telescopes and micrometers. When the law of gravitation was discovered it became necessary to it as to the motions within the solar system, and this necessarily In addition to this, the increase of optical power of telescopes revealed hitherto unknown objects-double stars and nebulaeand brought the study of the physical constitution of the heavenly bodies within the range of observatory work. Researches connected with these matters were, however, for a number of years chiefly left to amateur observers, and it is only since about 1830 that many public observatories have taken up this kind of work. The application of spectrum analysis, photometry, &c., in astronomy has still more increased the number and variety of observations to be made, while the use of photography in work of precision has completely revolutionized many branches of practical astronomy. It has now become necessary for most observatories to devote themselves to one or two special fields of work. It would be difficult to arrange the existing observatories into classes either according to the work pursued in them or their organization, as the work in many cases at different times has been directed to different objects, while the organization depends mostly on national and local circumstances. As already alluded to above, one of the principal characteristics of the larger observatories of the present day is the distribution of the work among a number of assistants under the general superintendence of a director. This applies principally to the great observatories, where the sun, moon, planets and a limited number of fixed stars are without interruption being observed, but even among these institutions hardly two are conducted on the same principles. Thus in Greenwich the instruments and observations are all treated according to strict rules laid down by the astronomerroyal, while in Washington or Pulkowa each astronomer has to a certain extent his choice as to the treatment of the instrument and arrangement of the observations. The same is the case with the smaller institutions, in most of which these arrangements vary very much with change of personnel. The way in which the results of observations are published depends principally on the size of the institutions. The larger observatories issue their " annals " or "observations" as separate periodically-published volumes, while the smaller ones chiefly depend on scientific journals to lay their results before the public, naturally less fully as to details. Subjoined is a catalogue of public and private observatories still in activity in 1910 or in existence within the past hundred years. (41° of long.) (Abbreviations: ap., aperture; equat., equatorial; obs., observatory or observations; o.g., object-glass; phot., photographic; refl., reflector; refr., refractor; s.g., silvered glass; vis., visual; univ., university. Where the names of two makers are given, the first is responsible for the optical, the second for the mechanical part of the instrument.) GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND A. Public Observatories. Greenwich, royal obs., lat. +51° 28′ 38.4". Founded in 1675 for the promotion of astronomy and navigation. The obs. have therefore from the first been principally intended to determine the positions of standard stars, the sun and planets, and above all to follow the motion of the moon with as little interruption as possible, both on and outside the meridian. Since 1873 spectroscopic obs. and a daily phot. record of sun-spots have been taken. The eighth satellite of Jupiter was discovered photographically in 1908. The obs. is under the direction of the astronomer-royal; and from the time of its first astronomer, Flamsteed, the institution has always maintained its place in the foremost rank of obs. Thus the obs. of Bradley (ob. 1762) form the foundation of modern stellar astronomy; but it was especially during the directorship of Airy (1835-1881) that the obs. rose to its present high state of efficiency. There are now two chief assistants, six assistants, and a staff of computers employed. The principal instruments now in use are: a meridian circle by Simms (and Ransomes and May as engineers), erected in 1850, having a circle of 6-ft. diameter and a telescope of 8-in. ap., Lassell's 2-ft. refl., erected 1884; 13-in. phot. refr. with 10-in. vis. o.g. by Grubb; 28-in. refr. by Grubb; 26-in. phot. refr. by Grubb, with the old 12.8-in. refr. as guiding telescope; 9-in. phot. refr. by Grubb, and 30-in. s.g. refl. by Common, the last four being on one stand; 8-in. altazimuth by Simms, erected 1896. The 26-in. and the 9-in. were presented by Sir H. Thompson. The standard "motor clock" is the centre of a system of electrically-controlled clocks scattered over the United Kingdom. The magnetic and meteorological department was founded in 1838; it contains a complete set of instruments giving continuous phot. records. The Observations are published with all details from 1750, beginning with 1836 in annual bulky quarto volumes; special results-e.g., Star Catalogues, Reductions of Lunar and Planetary Observations-are published in separate volumes. South Kensington, Solar physics obs., lat. +51° 29′ 48.0", long. oh. om. 41.5 s. W. Founded 1879, under Sir N. Lockyer; 3-ft. ref. and 30-in. refl. by Common; 10-in. refr. by Cooke, and several siderostats with attachments for spectroscopic and phot. work. Oxford, Radcliffe obs., lat. +51° 45' 35.4", long, o h. 5 m. 2-6 s. W. Founded in 1771 by the Radcliffe trustees. Obs. were regularly made, but none were published until 1839, when systematic obs. were begun with an 8-ft. transit instrument by Bird (1773) and a 6-ft. mural circle by Jones (1836). Heliometer (74 in.) by Repsold (1849); meridian circle by Troughton and Simms, mounted in 1861, formerly belonging to Mr Carrington; 10-in. refr. by Cooke (1887), Grubb refr. with 24-in. phot. and 18-in. vis. o.g. (1902); self-recording meteorological instruments. Besides the annual 8vo vols. of Observations (from 1840), four catalogues of stars have been published. Oxford, univ. obs., lat. +51° 45′ 34.2", long, o h. 5 m. 0.4 s. W. Finished in 1875; is under the Savilian professor of astronomy; 121-in. refr. by Grubb, and a 13-in. refl. made and presented by De La Rue. The former has been used for photometric obs.; the latter for taking lunar photographs, by means of which the late Professor Pritchard investigated the libration of the moon; 13-in. phot. refr. by Grubb attached to the 12-in., used for phot. zcae work. Cambridge, lat. +52° 12' 51-6", long, o h. om. 22-8 s. E. Founded by the univ. senate in 1820. Chiefly devoted to meridian work-up to 1870 with a 5-in. transit by Dollond and a mural circle by Jones; a new meridian circle by Simms, of 8-in. ap. and 3-ft. circles, was then erected. The "Northumberland equatorial was mounted in the "English" fashion in 1838; the o.g. by Cauchoix is of 11-in. ap. R. S. Newall's 25-in. refr. by Cooke, erected 1891, used for spectrographic work; siderostatic refr. with 12-in. o.g. by Cooke, 1898. In 1908 the instruments of Sir W. Huggins' obs. were presented by the Royal Society. ownership was similarly transferred. Since 1834 the obs. has been under the direction of the astronomer-royal for Scotland, who is also professor of practical astronomy in the univ. Professor T. Henderson (1833-1845) began extensive meridian obs. of fixed stars with a mural circle of 6-ft. diameter and an 8-ft. transit. A 2-ft. s.g. refl. by Grubb was erected in 1872. New obs. erected on Blackford Hill 1893-1895 for the instruments presented by Lord Crawford; 15-in. refr. by Grubb, transit circle by Simms of 8-in. ap., 12-in. s.g. refl. by Browning, two 6-in. refrs. and a very fine library; also the 2-ft. refl. The old obs. on Calton Hill now belongs to the city and is used for instruction; a 21-in. refr. by Wragge has been erected. Glasgow, univ. obs., lat. +55° 52' 42.8", long. c h. 17 m. 10-6 s. W. Organized in 1840 by subscription, aided by subsidies from the univ. and the state. Meridian circle by Ertel of 6-in. ap.; 9-in. refr. by Cooke, 20-in. s g. refl. by Grubb with spectrograph. Two catalogues of stars were published by the late director, R. Grant. Dublin, situated about 4 m. N.W. of Dublin at Dunsink, lat. +53° 23′ 13-1, long. o h. 25 m. 21.1 s. W. Belongs to the univ.; erected in 1785; is under the direction of the "Andrews professor of astronomy and royal astronomer of Ireland." In 1808 a reversible meridian circle by Ramsden and Berge of 8-ft. diameter was put up, with which Brinkley observed assiduously till 1827. In 1868 was erected a refr. of 11-in. ap. by Cauchoix (c.g. formerly belonging to and given by Sir J. South), which has been used for researches on stellar parallax. A meridian circle by Pistor and Martins of 6.4-in. ap. was mounted in 1873, and a 15-in. s.g. refl. for phot. work in 1889. Astronomical Observations and Researches made at Dunsink in 4to parts. Armagh, lat. +54° 21′ 12.7′′, long, o h. 26 m. 35-4 s. W. Founded and endowed by Archbishop R. Robinson in 1790. Possessed very few instruments until the obs. was enlarged by Archbishop Lord John George Beresford in 1827, when a mural circle and a transit by Jones were provided, with which meridian obs. were made till 1883, published in two star catalogues; 10-in. refr. by Grubb (1865) used for micrometer work. B. Principal Private Observatories in 1908. Mr W. Coleman's obs., Buckland, Dover, lat. +51° 8' 12", long. o h. 5 m. 11 s. E. Cooke 8-in. refr. used for obs. of double stars. Mr J. Franklin-Adams's obs., Mervel Hill, Hambledon, Surrey, lat. +51°8′ 11.6", long, o h. 2 m. 30.2 s. W. Erected 1903; twin equatorial by Cooke with 12-in. and 6-in. lenses, another with 8-in. and 6-in. lenses, used for phot. survey of the heavens with special reference to the Milky Way. The former instrument was used at the Cape in 1903-1904. Rev. T. E. Espin's obs., Tow Law, Darlington, lat. +54° 43′ 30′′, long. o h. 7 m. 14 s. W. 171-in. refl. by Calver, used since 1888 for spectroscopy and obs. of double stars. Mr W. H. Maw's obs., Kensington, lat. +51° 30′ 2.8", long. o h. o m. Surrey, lat. 51° 11' 38", long. o h. o m. 23.7 s. W., 8-in. refr. by s. W., 6-in. refr. by Cooke (1886). Also at Outwood, 49.4 Cooke (1896), both used on double stars. Sir Wilfrid Peek's obs., Rousdon, Lyme Regis, lat. +50° 42′ 38′′, long. o h. 11 m. 59.0 s. W. Erected by the late Sir Cuthbert Peek in 1885; 6-4-in. refr. by Merz used for obs. variable stars. Earl of Rosse's obs., Birr Castle, King's county, Ireland, lat. +53° 5' 47", long. o h. 31 m. 40.9 s. W. In 1839 the earl made and mounted a refl. of 3-ft. ap. (remounted as equat. in 1876), and in 1845 he completed the celebrated refl. of 6-ft. ap. and 54-ft. focal length. These instruments, particularly the latter, were used from 1848 to 1878 for obs. of nebulae, and revealed many new features in these bodies; results published in the Phil. Trans. and collected systematically in the Trans. Roy. Dubl. Soc. (1879-1880). Experiments were made by the present earl to determine the amount of heat radiated from the moon. Rugby School (Temple Obs.), lat. +52° 22′7′′, long, oh. 5 m. 28 W. Founded in 1872; 81-in. refr. by Clark, used for obs. of double stars and of stellar spectra. Durham, univ. obs., lat. +54° 46′ 6.2", long. o h. 6 m. 19.8 s. W. Founded in 1841; small meridian circle by Simms, refr. by Fraun-9 hofer of 61-in. ap., Almucantar of 6-in. ap. by Cooke (1900). Liverpool (Bidston, Birkenhead), lat. +53° 24′ 4.8", long. o h. 12 m. 17.3 s. W. Founded in 1838 by the municipal council; transferred in 1856 to the Docks and Harbour Board; moved to Birkenhead in 1867. Specially intended for testing the rates of chronometers under different temperatures. Transit instrument by Troughton and Simms, and an 8-in. refr. by Merz. Kew (Richmond), lat. +51° 28′ 6", long. o h. I m. 15.1 s. W. The central meteorological obs. of the United Kingdom, with selfregistering meteorological and magnetical instruments. Established in 1842 under the auspices of the British Association, afterwards transferred to the Royal Society. Since 1900 a department of the National Laboratory. A photoheliograph was employed at De La Rue's expense to take daily sun-pictures from 1863 to 1872. Edinburgh, royal obs., Blackford Hill, lat. +55° 57′ 28-0", long, o h. 12 m. 44.2 s. W. Founded in 1811 by subscription; the building on Calton Hill erected in 1818. In 1834 the founders handed over the administration to the government, and in 1846 the Stonyhurst College obs., Lancashire, lat. +53° 50′ 40′′, long. o h. m. 52.7 s. W. An 8-in. refr. by Troughton and Simms, mounted in 1867, used for spectroscopic and micrometric obs.; 15-in. Perry memorial refr. by Grubb mounted in 1893, used chiefly for solar work. C. Private Observatories now discontinued. Mr J. G. Barclay's obs., Leyton, Essex, lat. +51° 34′ 34′′, long. o h. o m. 0.9 s. W. In activity from 1862 till 1886, Ic-in. refr. by Cooke; chiefly devoted to double stars. Mr G. Bishop's obs., South Villa, Regent's Park, London, lat. +51° 31′ 29.9", long. o h. o m. 37.1 s. W In activity from 1836 to 1861, then removed to Twickenham, and discontinued in 1874; had a 7-in. refr by Dollond, with which Mr J. R. Hind discovered ten minor planets and several comets, and constructed maps of stars near the ecliptic. Mr R. C. Carrington's obs., Redhill, lat. +51° 14' 25.3. long. oh. om. 41-3s. W. Established in 1854; had a 42-in. refr. and transit circle of 5-in. ap. (now at Radcliffe Obs.). With the latter a catalogue of the positions of 3735 stars within 9° of the pole, with the former regular obs. of sun-spots, were made from 1853 to 1861. Mr A. A. Common's obs., Ealing, London, W. (1876-1903). 18-in. s.g. refl. erected in 1876, s.g. refl. of 36-in. ap. (mirror by Calver, mounting by the owner), erected in 1879; chiefly used for celestial photography, replaced by a refl. of 5-ft. ap. in 1889. Colonel Cooper's obs., Markree Castle, Co. Sligo, Ireland, lat. +54° 10' 31-8, long. o h. 33 m. 48-4 s. W. Founded by the late E. J. Cooper, who in 1834 erected a refr. of 13.3-in. ap. (o.g. by Cauchoix). This instrument was from 1848 to 1856 used for determining the approximate places of 60,000 stars near the ecliptic. The obs. was restored in 1874, and the refr. was used for double-star obs. till 1883. Earl of Crawford's obs., Dunecht, Aberdeenshire, lat. +57° 9' 36", s. W. Founded in 1872; 15-in. refr. by Grubb, 12-in. 8.g. rel. by Browning, two 6-in. and several smaller refrs: meridian circle by Simms similar to the one at Cambridge, numerous spectroscopes and minor instruments, also a large library and a collection of physical instruments. Chiefly devoted to spectroscopic and cometary obs. Whole equipment presented to Edinburgh obs. in 1888. Mr E. Crossley's obs., Bermerside, Halifax, Yorkshire. Equatorial refr. by Cooke of 9.3 in. ap., erected in 1871, chiefly used for obs. of double stars till 1902. Rev W. R. Dawes's obs., first at Ormskirk (1830-1839), lat. +53° 43' 18", long. o h. 11 m. 36 s. W.; afterwards at Cranbrook, Kent (1844-1850), lat. +51° 6' 31, long. o h. 2 m. 10-8 s. E.; then at Wateringbury, near Maidstone, lat. +51 15 12", long. oh. 1 m. 39-8 s. E., till 1857; and finally at Hopefield, Haddenham, lat. +51° 45' 54", long. o h. 3 m. 43.4 s. W., till Mr Dawes's death in 1868. Possessed at first only small instruments, then successively a 6-in. refr. by Merz, a 7-in. and an 8-in. refr. by Clark, and an 8-in. refr. by Cooke, with all of which a great many measures of double stars were made. stars. Mr W. De La Rue's obs., Cranford, Middlesex, lat. +51° 28' 57.8", long. o h. 1 m. 37.5 s. W. Established in 1857; with 13-in. refl., devoted to solar and lunar photography. The Kew photoheliograph was employed here from 1858 to 1863 to take daily photographs of the sun. The refl. was presented to the Oxford univ. obs. in 1874. Mr S. Groombridge's obs., Blackheath, lat. +51° 28' 2.7", long. oh. om. 0-6 s. E. In 1806 Mr Groombridge obtained a new transit circle of 4-ft. diameter by Troughton, with which he up to 1816 observed stars within 50° of the pole forming a catalogue of 4243 Sir William and Sir John Herschel's obs. at Slough near Windsor, lat. +51° 30' 20", long. o h. 2 m. 24 s. W. William Herschel settled at Datchet in 1782, and at Slough in 1786, and erected several 20-ft. refl. (of 18-in. ap.), and in 1789 his 40-ft. refl. of 4-ft. ap. The latter was comparatively little used (two satellites of Saturn were discovered with it), while the former served to discover about 2500 nebulae and clusters, 800 double stars, and two satellites of Uranus, as also to make the innumerable other obs. which have made the name of Herschel so celebrated. Sir J. Herschel used a 20-ft. refl. at Slough from 1825 to 1833, and from 1834 to 1838 at the Cape of Good Hope, to examine the nebulae and double stars of the whole of the visible heavens, discovering 2100 new nebulae and 5500 new double stars. Sir William Huggins's obs., Upper Tulse Hill, London, lat. +51° 26' 47", long. o h. o m. 27.7 s. W. Founded in 1856; furnished with an 8-in. refr. (by Clark and Cooke). In 1870 was erected an equat. mounting with a 15-in. refr. and a Cassegrain refl. of 18-in. ap., both made by Grubb for the Royal Society. With these Sir W. Huggins has made his well-known spectroscopic observations and photographs of stellar spectra. The instruments were transferred to the Cambridge obs. in 1908. Rev T. J. Hussey's obs., Hayes, Kent, lat. +51° 22' 38", long. oh. 0 m. 3.6 s. E. In activity from about 1825 for about twelve years; 6-in. refr. by Fraunhofer, used for making one of the star maps published by the Berlin Academy. Mr G. Knott's obs., Cuckfield, Sussex (from 1860 to 1873 at Woodcroft, lat. +51° 0' 41", long. o h. om. 34 s. W., afterwards at Knowles Lodge, Cuckfield); 7-3-in. refr. by Clark, used for observing double stars and variable stars till 1894. Mr W. Lassell's obs., from 1840 to 1861 at Starfieid near Liverpool, lat. +53° 25′ 28", long. o h. 11 m. 38-7 s. W.; contained reft. of 9- and 24-in. ap.; employed for obs. of the satellites of Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, and of nebulae. The 2-ft. refl. was used at Malta in 1852-1853, and a 4-ft. refl. was mounted in 1861, also at Malta, and used till 1864 for obs. of satellites and nebulae. The eighth satellite of Saturn, the two inner satellites of Uranus and the satellite of Neptune were discovered at Starfield by Mr Lassell. Dr J. Lee's obs., Hartwell, Bucks, lat. +51° 48' 36" long. oh. 3 m. 24.3 8. W. In 1836 Dr Lee came into possession of Captain Smyth's 6-in. refr., and mounted it at Hartwell House where it continued to be occasionally employed for double-star obs. and other work up to about 1864. Mr F. McClean's obs., Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells. Phot. 12-in. refr. and o.g. prism by Grubb used for photos. of star spectra, 18. Newall's obs., Gateshead, Newcastle-on-Tyne. A 25-in. refr. by Cooke was mounted in 1870 but never used; presented to Cambridge obs. in 1891. Dr Isaac Roberts's obs., Crowborough, Sussex, lat. +51° 3' 7", long. o h. om. 37 s. E. 20-in. s.g. refl. by Grubb (with 7-in. refr.) used for phot. of nebulae and clusters 1890-1904. Captain W. H. Smyth's obs., Bedford, lat. +52° 8' 27.6", long. oh. i m. 52.0 s. W. In 1830 Captain (afterwards Admiral) Smyth erected a 6-in. refr. by Tulley, and observed the double stars and nebulae contained in his " Bedford Catalogue" (1844). Sir James South's obs., from 1816 to 1824 at Blackman Street, Southwark, long. o h. o m. 21-8 s. W. Here South took transit obs. of the sun, and he and J. Herschel measured double stars, in 18211823. In 1826 South erected an obs. at Campden Hill, Kensington, lat. +51° 30' 12", long. oh. om. 46-8 s. W., and procured a 12-in. o.g. from Cauchoix. As Troughton, however, failed to make a satis factory mounting, the glass was never used till after it had been presented to Dublin obs. in 1862. Colonel Tomline's obs. at Orwell Park, Ipswich, lat. +52° 0′ 33′′. long. o h. 4 m. 55-8 s. E. 10-in. refr. by Merz, used for obs. of comets from 1874 to 1889. Mr W. E. Wilson's (d. 1908), obs., Daramona, Streete, Co. Westmeath, Ireland, lat. +53° 41' 12", long. o h. 29 m. 59 s. W. 2-ft. refl. by Grubb, and other instruments for phot. and solar work. Lord Wrottesley's obs., from 1829 to 1841 at Blackheath, lat. +51° 28' 2", long. o h. o m. 2.7 s. E., where a catalogue of the right ascensions of 1318 stars was formed from obs. with a transit instrument by Jones. In 1842 a new obs. was built at Wrottesley Hall, lat. +52° 37' 2-3, long. o h. 8 m. 53-6 s. W., where the transit and a 7 in.-refr. by Dollond were mounted. Obs. were here made of double stars. FRANCE Paris, national obs., lat. +48° 50' 11-2", long. o h. 9 m. 20.9 s. E. Founded in 1667, when the construction of a large and monumental building was commenced by the architect Claude Perrault, J. D. Cassini's obs. made the institution for some time the most celebrated obs, existing, but later the activity declined, although several eminent men, as Bouvard and Arago, have held the post of director. Since 1854, when Leverrier assumed the directorship, the obs. have been conducted with regularity, and, together with a number of most important theoretical works, published in the Annals (Observations and Memoirs). The principal instruments now in use are: a meridian circle by Secretan and Eichens, with an o.g, of 9:5-in. ap., another by Eichens (given by M. Bischoffsheim) of 7.5-in. ap., a 15-in. refr. by Lerebours and Brünner, a 12-in. refr. by Secretan and Eichens, a refr. of 9.5-in. ap., an equat. coudée by Henry and Gautier of 101-in. ap. (1883), another by the same of 231-in. ap., vis and phot. (1891), phot. refr, of 13 in. by the same. A s.g. refl. of 4-ft. ap. was mounted in 1875, but has never been used. In addition to this national obs. there were during the latter half of the 18th century several minor obs. in Paris, which only lasted for some years. Among these were the obs. at Collège Masarin, lat. +48° 51' 29", where Lacaille observed from 1746 to 1750, and from 1754 to 1762, and the obs. at the Ecole Militaire, lat. +48° 51' 5. built in 1768 and furnished with an 8-ft. mural quadrant by Bird, with which J. L. d'Agelet observed telescopic stars (1782-1785). and which was afterwards (1789-1801), under Lalande's direction. employed for observing more than 50,000 stars, published in the Histoire Céleste (1801). Meudon, close to Paris, lat. +48° 48' 18", long. o h. 8 m. 55-6 s. E. Founded in 1875; devoted to physical astronomy, and especially to celestial photography, under the direction of J. Janssen; 32-in. vis. and 241-in. phot. refr. by Henry and Gautier, refl. by the same of 39-in. ap. There is a branch obs. on Mont Blanc, where a polar siderostat with 12-in. o.g. and 20-in. mirror is occasionally used for solar and spectroscopic work (15.780 ft. above sea-level). Montsouris, situated in the Montsouris Park, south of Paris, lat. +48° 49′ 18′′, long, o h. 9 m. 20-7 s. E. Founded in 1875 for the training of naval officers. Juvissy (Seine-et-Oise), private obs. of N. C. Flammarion, lat. +48° 41' 37", long. o h. 9 m. 29-0 s. E. 91-in. refr. used for obs. of planets. Chevreuse (Seine-et-Oise), private obs. of M. Farman (1903), lat. +48 42 33. long. o n. 8 m. 4.5 s. E.; 8-in. refr. by Mailhat used on double stars. Besançon, chronometric and meteoro! obs., lat. +47° 14′ 50-0", long, o h. 23 m. 57:1 s. E. Opened 1884; 8-in. refr., 12-in. ecuat. coudée, 71-in. transit circle, all by Gautier. Lyons, old obs. in lat. 45° 45′ 46", long. o h. 19 m. 18 s. E., at the Jesuit college. A new obs. was erected in 1877 at St Génis-Laval, a some distance from the city, lat. +45° 41' 41-0, long, o h. 19 m. 8.5 E. Transit circle by Eichens (6-in. o.g.), 12-in. equat. coudée Gautier, 12-in. siderostat. Bordeaux, univ. obs. at Floirac, 4 km. N.W. of the city, a +44° 50' 7:3", long. o h. 2 m. 5.5 s. W. Founded 1882; 7-in. transit circle by Eichens, 14-in. refr. by Merz and Gautier, 13-in. phot. refr. by Henry and Gautier. belonging to the Jesuits, taken over by the ministry of the navy in Marseilles, lat. 43° 18′ 17.5. long. oh. 21 m. 34-6 s. E. Originally 174018 was here that, J. L. Pons made his numerous discoveries of comets. New buildings erected in 1869; 91-in. Merz refr.. refl. of 32-in. ap. s.g. by Foucault, 71-in. transit circle. Toulouse, lat. 43° 36′ 45-0", long, o'h. 5 m. 49-9 s. E. Erected in 1841 (Darquier had observed at the Lyceum towards the end of the 18th century); reorganized 1873; 9-in. refr. and 13-in. phot. refr. by Gautier, 13-in. and 32-in. refl. Nice, lat. +43° 43′ 16-9", long. o h. 29 m. 12.2 s. E., founded and endowed by R. L. Bischoffsheim for the Bureau de Longitude (1880), situated at Mont Gros, north-east of Nice; a refr. of 30-in. ap. by Henry and Gautier, a meridian circle by Brünner of 8-in. ap., 15-in. refr. and 15-in. equat. coudée by Henry and Gautier. A bbadia (3asses Pyrénées), lat. + 43°22′ 52-2", long, oh. 7 m. 0.Is. W. Founded by A. d'Abbadie, 1858, belongs now to the Paris Acad. of Science. 6-in. transit circle. GERMANY Altona, lat. +53° 32′ 45-3", long. o h. 39 m. 46.1 s. E. Founded in 1823 by the Danish government to assist in the geodetic operations in Holstein. A meridian circle by Reichenbach (of 4-in. ap.) was procured, to which in 1858 was added a 41-in. equat. by Repsold. The obs. is best known by the fact that the Astronomische Nachrichten, the principal astronomical journal, was published here from 1821 (by H. C. Schumacher up to 1850, by C. F. W. Peters from 1854). The obs. was moved to Kiel in 1874. Bamberg, lat. + 49°53′ 6.0", long. o h. 43 m. 33.6 s. E. Founded and endowed by the late Dr K. Remeis, completed 1889; 71-in. heliometer by Merz and Repsold, 104-in. refr. by Schröder. Berlin, royal obs., lat. + 52° 30' 16.7", long. o h. 53 m. 34.9 s. E. Was erected in 1705 as part of the building of the Academy of Sciences (lat. + 52° 31' 12-5", long. o h. 53 m. 35 s. E.), a very unsuitable locality. A new obs. was built in the southern part of the city, finished in 1835. Refr. by Utzschneider and Fraunhofer of 9-in. ap. (used chiefly for obs. of minor planets), a meridian circle by Pistor and Martins of 4-in. ap., another by the same makers of 7-in. ap. Berlin, obs. of Urania Society for diffusing natural knowledge, lat. + 52° 31' 30-7", long, o h. 53 m. 27-4 s. E. Opened 1889; 12-in. refr. by Schott. In the Treptow Chaussee is a popular obs. with a 27-in. refr. by Schott and Steinheil. Bonn, univ. obs., lat. +50° 43' 45.0", long. o h. 28 m. 23.2 s. E. Finished in 1845; meridian circle by Pistor of 41-in. ap., heliometer by Merz of 6-in. ap. The former was used by F. W. A. Argelander for observing the stars contained in his three great catalogues. The obs. is chiefly known by the zone obs., made from 1852 to 1859, with a small comet-seeker, on which Argelander's great atlas of 324.198 stars between the north pole and -2° decl. is founded, continued with a 6-in. refr. from -2° to -31° decl. by Schönfeld. A meridian circle of 6-in. ap. by Repsold was mounted in 1882. Bothkamp, F. G. von Bülow's obs., lat. + 54° 12′ 9-6′′, long. o h. 40 m. 31.2 8. E. Situated a few miles from Kiel, founded in 1870. With a refr. of 11-in. ap. by Schröder, Dr K. H. Vogel obtained valuable results in 1871-1874; since then it has only been used occasionally. Bremen. In the third storey of his house in Sandstrasse, H. W. M. Olbers (d. 1840) had his obs., lat. + 53° 4' 38", long. o h. 35 m. 10s. E.; though the principal instrument was only a 31-in. refr. by Dollond, many comets and the planets Pallas and Vesta were discovered and observed here. Breslau, univ. obs., lat. + 51° 6′ 55.8", long. I h. 8 m. 8.7 s. E. Founded 1790. In a small and unsuitable locality; 8-in. refr. by Clark and Repsold erected 1898. Dresden, Baron von Engelhardt s obs., lat. + 51° 2' 16-8", long, oh. 54 m. 54-8 s. E. A 12-in. refr. by Grubb (mounted 1880), used for obs. of comets and double stars, presented to Kasan obs. in 1897. Düsseldorf (Bilk, originally a suburb, now part of the city), lat. +51° 12' 25.0", long. o h. 27 m. 5.5 s. E. Founded and endowed by Professor J. F. Benzenberg (d. 1846); best known by the discovery of twenty-one minor planets by K. T. R. Luther; 41-in. refr. by Merz, 71-in. refr. by Merz and Bamberg. Gotha-In 1791 an obs. was founded by Duke Ernest II. at Seeberg, lat. +50° 56′ 5.2", long. o h. 42 m. 55.8 s. E., on a hill a few miles from Gotha, the chief instrument being a large transit instrument by Ramsden. Through the labours, principally theoretical, of F. X. Zach, B. A. von Lindenau, J. F. Encke and P. A. Hansen, the institution ranked with the first obs. A new obs. was built at Gotha in 1857, lat. +50° 56' 37.5", long, oh. 42 m. 50-4 s. E., which received the instruments from Seeberg, including a small transit circle by Ertel (made in 1824), also a new equat. by Repsold of 4)-in. ap Gollingen, univ. obs., la. +5°31′ 48.2", long. oh. 39 m. 46.2 s. E. An obs. had existed here from 175: where Tobias Mayer worked. In 1811 a new building was constructed. Besides his mathematical works, K. F. Gauss found time to engage in important geodetic and magnetic obs.: meridian circle by Repsold (44-in. a. another by Reichenbach (4-in.), 6-in. heliometer by Repsold (1888) Hamburg, lat. + 53° 33′ 7.0", long, o h. 39 m. 53.6 s. E. Built in the year 1825. With a meridian circle of 4-in. ap. by Repsold, K. L. C. Rümker observed the places of 12,000 stars. A refr. of 10-in. ap. by Merz and Repsold was mounted in 1868. A new obs. is now being built 20 km. south-cast of the city, lat. + 53° 28′ 46′′, long. o h. 40 m. 58.5 s. E., with a 231-in. refr by Steinheil and Repsold, 71-in. transit circle by Repsold, and a 39-in. ref Heidelberg, grand ducal obs., lat. + 49° 23′ 54.9", long. o h. 34 m. 53.1 s. E. On the Königstuhl hill, 500 ft. above the Neckar; opened 1898. Consists of an astrometric and an astrophysical department. The former has a 13-in. refr. by Steinheil and Repsold, an 8-in. refr. by Merz and a 6-in. transit circle by Repsold. The astrophysical department is chiefly devoted to phot. work with a triple equat. with two 16-in. lenses and 10-in. guiding telescope, as well as with a 28-in. s.g. refl. by Zeiss. Jena, univ. obs., lat. +50° 55′ 34-9", long. oh. 46 m. 20·3 s. 7-in. refr. mounted 1891. Kiel, univ. obs., lat. + 54° 20' 27-6", long. o h. 40 m. 35.6 s. E. Contains the instruments removed from Altona in 1874, also an 8-in refr. by Steinheil and a 9-in. transit circle by Repsold." Built 1813; F. W. Bessel was the director till his death in 1846, and Königsberg, univ. obs., lat. + 54° 42' 50.4" long. 1 h. 21 m. 59.0 s. E. nearly all his celebrated investigations were carried out here, e.g. obs. of fundamental stars, zone obs. of stars, researches on refraction, heliometric obs., by which the annual parallax of the star 61 Cygni was first determined, &c. The instruments are a 4-in. transit circle by Repsold (1841), a 6-in. heliometer by Utzschneider (1829), and a 13-in. refr. by Reinfelder and Repsold (1898). Landstuhl (Palatinate), private obs. of J. P. H. Fauth, lat. +49° 24′ 429", long. o h. 30 m. 16-3 s. E.; 71-in. refr. Leipzig, univ. obs. Erected 1787-1790 on the "Pleissenburg' lat. 51° 20' 20.5", long, o h. 49 m. 30-2 s. E.; possessed only small instruments, the largest being a 41-in. refr. by Fraunhofer (1830). In 1861 a new obs. was erected, lat. +51° 20' 5.9", long. o h. 49 m 33.9 s. E., with a refr. of 8-in. ap. by Steinheil, replaced in 1891 by a 12-in. refr. by Reinfelder and Repsold, a meridian circle by Pistor and Martins of 6-3-in. ap. and a 6-in. heliometer by Repsold. Lilienthal, near Bremen, lat. + 53° 8' 25", long. o h. 36 m. 1 s. E. J. H. Schröter's private obs.; from 1779 to 1813. Contained a number of refl. by Herschel and Schrader, the largest being of 27-ft. focal length and 20-in. ap. (movable round the eye-piece), used for physical obs., chiefly of planets. Destroyed during the war in 1813; the instruments (which had been bought by the government in 1800) were, for the greater part, sent to the Göttingen obs. Mannheim, lat. + 49° 29′ 10.9", long. o h. 33 m. 50.5 s. E. Built in 1772; very few obs. were published until the obs. was restored in 1860, when a 6-in. refr. by Steinheil was procured. In 1879 the obs. was moved to Karlsruhe and later to Heidelberg. Munich, at Bogenhausen, royal obs., lat. + 48° 8' 45.5" long. oh. 46 m. 26.1 s. E. Founded in 1809; a transit circle by Reichenbach was mounted in 1824, an 11-in. equat. refr. by Fraunhofer in 1835. The former was used from 1840 for zone obs. (about 80,000) of telescopic stars. 6-in. transit circle by Repsold mounted 1891. Potsdam, lat. + 52° 22′ 56-0′′, long, o h. 52 m. 15-9 s. E. "Astrophysical obs.," founded in 1874, devoted to spectroscopic and photographic obs. A refr. by Schröder of 114-in. ap., another by Grubb of 8-in. ap., a refr. by Steinheil and Merz with 9-in. vis. and 13-in. phot. o.g. and a refr. by Steinheil and Repsold with 31-in. phot. and 191-in. vis. o.g., spectroscopes, photometers, &c. Results are published in 4to vols. Strassburg, univ. obs., lat. +48° 35′ 0.3", long. oh. 31 m. 4.5 s. E. Finished in 1881; an 18-in. refr. by Merz; altazimuth of 51-in. ap., meridian circle of 61-in. ap., and a 6 in. orbit sweeper, all by Repsold. Wilhelmshaven (Prussia), naval obs., lat. + 53° 31' 52.2", long. oh. 32 m. 35.1 s. E.; situated on the Jahde to the north of Oldenburg. Founded in 1874; meridian circle by Repsold of 41-in. p., and meteorological, magnetical, and tide-registering instrumet... AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Vienna, imperial and royal obs. On the univ. building an obs. was founded in 1756, lat. + 48° 12' 35.5". long. 1 h. 5 m. 31-75. E. Owing to the unsuitable locality and the want of instruments, very few obs. of value were taken until the obs. was rebuilt in 1826, when some better instruments were procured, especially a meridian circle of 4-in. ap., and a 6-in. refr. by Fraunhofer (mounted in 1832), used for obs. of planets and comets. From 1874 to 1879 a large and magnificent building (with four domes) was erected at Währing, northwest of the city, lat. + 48° 13' 55.4", long. 1 h. 5 m. 21.5 s. E. In addition to the old instruments, two refrs. were erected, one by Clark of 11-in. ap., another by Grubb of 27-in. ap. (mounted 1882); later a 15-in. equat. coudée by Gautier and a 13-ín. phot. refr. by Repsold have been mounted. Vienna (Josephstadt), private obs. of T. von Oppolzer (d. 1886), lat. +48° 12' 53.8", long. I h. 5 m. 25.3 s. E. Established in 1865; 5-in. refr. by Merz, 4-in. meridian circle. Vienna (Ottakring), private obs. of M.von Kuffner,lat. +48°12′46·7′′. long. 1 h. 5 m. 11.0 s. E. Completed 1886; 104-in. vis. and 6-3-in. phot. refr. by Steinheil and Repsold, 8-in. heliometer and 4-in. transit circle by Repsold. Prague, univ. obs., lat. +50° 5' 15.8", long. o h. 57 m. 40-3 s. E. Founded in 1751 at the Collegium Clementinum, on a high tower. 6-in. ret. by Steinheil and a 4-in. meridian circle. Senftenberg in the east of Bohemia), lat. + 50° 5' 55" long. th. 5 m. 51 s. E. Beron von Senftenberg's obs.; established in 1844. Obs. of comets and planets made with small instruments till the owner's death (1858) |