Olmülz, lat. +49° 35′ 40′′, long, 1 h.9 m. os. E. E. von Unkrechtsberg's obs.; 5-in. refr. by Merz. J. F. Julius Schmidt observed planets and comets from 1852 to 1858. Kremsmünster (Upper Austria), lat. +48° 3′ 23.1", long. o h. 56 m. 31.6 s. E. Founded in 1748 at the gymnasium of the Benedictines. 3-in. meridian circle (mounted in 1827); 51-in. refr. (mounted in 1856), used for comets and minor planets. Transit circle by Repsold (1907).

Pola (sea-coast, Austria), naval obs., lat. +44° 51′ 48.7′′, long. oh. 55 m. 23.1 s. E. Founded in 1871; meridian circle of 6-in. ap. by Simms, 6-in. refr. by Steinheil, magnetic and meteorological instruments. Twenty-eight minor planets were discovered here from 1874 to 1880 by J. Palisa.

Cracow, univ. obs., lat. +50° 3′ 50.0", long. 1 h. 19 m. 51.1 s. E. 'Possesses only small instruments.

Lussinpiccolo (island of Lussin, Adriatic), private obs. of Madame Manora, lat. +44° 32′ 11.0", lang. oh. 57 m. 52.4 s. E. Erected 1894; 7-in. refr. by Reinfelder, used for obs. of planets.

Kis Kartal (north-east of Budapest), private obs. of Baron Podmaniczky, lat. +47° 41′ 54.8", long. 1 h. 18 m. 11.7 s. E. 71-in. refr. by Merz and Cooke.

O'Gyalla (near Komorn, Hungary), lat. +47° 52' 27.3", long, 1 h. 12 m. 45.6 s. E. Nicolas de Konkoly's obs., since 1899 a royal obs. Established in 1871, rebuilt and enlarged in 1876, devoted to astrophysics. A 10-in. s.g. refl. by Browning was in use up to 1881, when it was disposed of and a 10-in. refr. (o.g. by Merz) mounted in its place; also a 6-in. refr. by Merz, and a 6-3 in. phot. refr. Kalocza (south of Budapest), lat. +46° 31'41", long. I h. 15 m. 54 s. E. Obs. of the Jesuit college, founded in 1878 by Cardinal Haynald; 7-in. refr. by Merz, used for solar obs.

Herény (Vas, Hungary), lat. +47 147ded in 1881; 10-in. refl. ,long. I h. 6 m. 24.7 s.

E. E. and A. von Gothard's obs. by Browning.

SWITZERLAND

Zürich, lat. +47° 22′ 40-0", long. o h. 34 m. 12.3 s. E. An obs. existed since 1759; handed over to the Polytechnic School in 1855; new building erected in 1863. A 6-in. refr. by Merz and Kern with two phot. telescopes, two transit instruments, &c. Sun-spots are regularly observed, but the institution is chiefly devoted to educational purposes.

Merz.

Neuchâtel, lat. +46° 59′ 51·0′′, long. o h. 27 m. 49-9 s. E. Erected in 1858; meridian circle of 41-in. ap. by Ertel, 6-in. refr. by Geneva, lat. +46° 11′ 59′3′′, long. o h. 24 m. 36-6 s. E. Founded in 1773: a new building erected in 1830. The obs. has been the centre of the important geodetic operations carried on in Switzerland since 1861. An 11-in. refr. (o.g, by Merz) was presented by the director E. Plantamour in 1880; 4-in. transit circle.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

Madrid, royal obs., lat. +40° 24′ 29.7", long, o h. 14 m. 45:1 s. W. 101-in. refr. by Merz, 83-in. refr. by Grubb, 6-in. transit circle by Repsold.

Barcelona, obs. of Acad. of Science, lat. +41° 25′ 18", long. o h. 8 m. 28 s. E. Opened 1904; 15-in. refr., phot. and vis. by Mailhat, 7-in. transit circle by the same.

Cadiz, naval obs., at San Fernando, lat. +36° 27′ 42.0", long. oh. 24 m. 49.3s. W. Founded in 1797; 11-in. refr. by Brünner, 13-in. phot. refr. by Henry and Gautier, 8-in. transit circle by Simms. Lisbon, royal obs., lat. +38° 42′ 31.3", long, o h. 36 m. 44:7 s. W. Founded 1861; 151-in. refr. by Merz and Repsold, transit circle by Repsold.

Coimbra, univ. obs., lat. +40° 12′ 25.5", long. o h. 33 m. 43.1 s. W. Founded 1792; 6-in. transit circle by Repsold, 16-in. refl. by Secretan. ITALY

Turin, univ. obs., lat. +45° 4′ 7.9". long. o h. 30 m. 47-2 s. E. Founded in 1790 by the Academy of Science; rebuilt in 1820 on a tower of the Palazzo Madama, 41-in. transit circle by Reichenbach, 12-in. refr. by Merz; handed over to the univ. in 1865. A new obs. is being erected 6 km. from the city.

Milan, originally obs. of Brera College, now royal obs. of Brera, lat. +45 27 59.2", long, o h. 36 m. 45:9 s. E. Founded in 1763, The publication of an annual ephemeris from 1775 to 1875 and important theoretical works absorbed most of the time of the directors B. Oriani and F. Carlini, and the instruments were rather insufficient. In 1875 an 8-in. refr. by Merz was mounted, with which G. V. Schiaparelli has made valuable obs. of Mars; 18-in. refr. by Padua, univ. obs., lat. +45° 24' 10", long, o h. 47 m. 29.2 s. E. Founded in 1767. In 1837 a meridian circle by Starke of 4-in. ap. was mounted, with which stars from Bessel's zones were reobserved; the results were published in five catalogues; 41-in. refr. by Merz and Starke (1858); Dembowski's 7-in. refr. mounted in 1881.

Merz.

Gallarate, near Lago Maggiore, from 1860 to 1879, Baron E. Dembowski's obs. From 1852 to 1859 Baron Dembowski had observed double stars at Naples with a 5-in. dialyte by Plössl and a small transit circle by Starke. From 1860 he used a 7-in. refr. by Merz

Bologna, univ. obs., lat. +44° 29′ 47.0", long, o h. 45 m. 24.5 s. E. | Founded in 1724 on a tower of the univ. building. Obs. have only been made occasionally. A 31-in. meridian circle was mounted in 1846. Florence. In 1774 a muscum of science and natural history was established, part of which was used as an obs., but very few obs. were made; a new obs., built 1872 at Arcetri, lat. +43° 45' 14′4′′, long o h. 45 m. 1-3 s. E. 11-in. and 91-in: refrs. by Amici. Teramo (Abruzzo), private obs. of V. Cerulli, lat. +42° 39′ 27′′, long o h. 54 m. 56 s. E. 151-in. refr. by Cooke. Rome, obs. of the Roman College, lat. +41° 53′ 53.6", long. o h. 49 m. 55:4 s. E. Established in 1787, taken over by the government 1879. In 1853 a new obs. was erected on the unfinished piles of the church of St Ignatius, and furnished with a 9-in. refr. by Merz, a meridian circle by Ertel of 31-in. ap. (in use from 1842). With these instruments, to which were later added powerful spectroscopes, A. Secchi made a great many obs., chiefly relating to spectrum analysis and physical astronomy; 15-in. refr. by Steinheil.

Rome, obs. of the Capitol, lat. +41° 53′ 33-6", long. o h. 49 m. 56.35. E. Established in 1848; belongs to the univ.; small transit circle and a 41-in. refr. by Merz. The latter was used by L. Respighi for obs. of solar prominences.

Rome (Vatican), papal obs., lat. +41°54′48′′, long. o h. 49 m. 49.35. E. Founded 1890; 101-in. refr. by Merz, 13-in. phot. and 8-in. vis. refr. and 5-in. photoheliograph by Henry.

Naples, royal obs., situated at Capo di Monte, lat. +40° 51′ 46-3", long. o h. 57 m. 1.7 s. E. Erected in 1812-1819; a 4-in. meridian circle by Reichenbach, a 64-in. refr. by Reichenbach and Fraunhofer, 6-in. Merz. refr.

Palermo, royal obs., lat. +38° 6' 44.5", long. o h. 53 m. 25.9 s. E. Erected in 1790 on a tower of the royal palace. The principal instruments were a reversible vertical circle by Ramsden of 5-ft. diameter with a 3-in. telescope, and a transit instrument of 3-in. ap. With these G. Piazzi observed the stars contained in his celebrated Catalogue of 7641 Stars (1814); this work led him to the discovery of the first minor planet, Ceres, on the 1st of January 1801. The activity was revived in 1857, when a meridian circle by Pistor and Martins of 5-in. ap. was mounted; a 9-in. refr. by Merz has been used for spectroscopic work.

o

Catania, lat. +37° 30′ 13:3′′, 1ong. I h. 0 m. 20-6 s. E. Founded 1885; 13-in. phot. refr. by Henry and Gautier, and a 13-in. refr. by Merz. The latter is used in summer on a duplicate mounting on Mount Etna, where in 1879-1880 an obs. was built at the "Časa degl' Inglesi," 9650 ft. above the sea, for solar obs. GREECE

Athens, lat. +37° 58' 20", long. 1 h. 34 m. 55.7 s. E. Erected in 1846; founded by Baron Sina. With a refr. of 64-in. ap. Julius Schmidt (d. 1884) made obs. of the physical appearance of the moon, planets and comets. Reorganized 1895; 151-in. refr: by Gautier, 6-in. transit circle.

RUSSIA

St Petersburg, obs. of the Academy of Sciences, lat. +59° 56′ 29.7", circle by Ertel. Abolished in 1884. A univ. obs. was founded in long. 2 h. 1 m. 13.5 s. E. Founded in 1725, restored in 1803; meridian 1880, lat. +59° 56' 32.0", long. 2 h. 1 m. 11.4 s. E.; 91-in. refr. by Reinfelder and Repsold, used on double stars, during the summer at Domkino, lat. +58° 35.6', long. 1 h. 59 m. 25 s. E.

Fulkovo (Pulkowa), Nicholas Central Obs., lat. +59° 46′ 18.7", long. 2 h. I m. 18.6 s. E. Finished in 1839. Was under the direction of F. G. W. Struve till 1861, then of his son O. Struve till 1889. The staff consists now of the director, five astronomers, six assistants and computers. The principal instruments are: a transit instrument by Ertel of 6-in. ap., a vertical circle by Ertel of 6-in. ap. (the circle of 34-ft. diameter has been redivided by Repsold).-these two instruments are for determining standard places of stars; a meridian circle by Repsold (6-in. ap., 4-ft. circles), used since 1841 to observe all stars north of -15° decl. down to the 6th mag., and all others observed by Bradley; a prime vertical transit by Repsold with 61-in. ap., used for determining the constant of aberration; a 71-in. heliometer by Merz; a refr. by Merz of 14.9-in. ap. (remounted by Repsold in 1880), which was used by O. Struve to observe double stars; 30-in. refr. by Clark and Repsold, erected 1884. chiefly used for spectrographic work; 13-in. phot. refr. See also Odessa.

Abo (Finland), univ. obs., lat. +60° 26' 56.8", long, 1 h. 29 m. 8.3 8. E. Founded in 1819. With the meridian circle by Reichenbach of 4-in. ap. F. W. A. Argelander observed the 560 stars contair.ed in the Abo catalogue. In consequence of a great fire in 1827 the univ. and obs. were moved to Helsingfors.

Helsingfors (Finland), univ. obs., lat. +60° 9' 42.6′′, long. 1 h. 39 m. 49.1 s. E. Erected in 1832-1835: furnished with a 7-in. refr. and the instruments from Abo, including a transit instrument by Fraunhofer of 51-in, ap.; 13-in. phot. refr. erected 1890.

Dorpat (Yuricv), univ. obs., lat. +58° 22′ 46.8", long. I h. 46 m. 53.2 S. E. Founded in 1808; 1814-1839 under the direction of F. G. W. Struve. With a meridian circle by Reichenbach obs. were made from 1822 to 1843, chiefly of double stars, while the 9kin. refr. by Fraunhofer was used from 1824 to 1837 for measuring double stars,

Warsaw, univ. obs., lat. +52° 13′ 57′′, long. 1 h. 24 m. 7.3 s. E. Erected in 1820-1824; meridian circle by Reichenbach; 6-in. refr. by Merz.

Moscow, univ. obs., lat. +55° 45′ 19.8′′, long, 2 h. 30 m. 17.0 s. E. An obs. was built in 1825-1832; the present building was erected about 1850; 10-7-in. refr by Merz; a meridian circle by Repsold of 5.3-in. ap.; 151-in. vis.; and phot. refr. by Henry and Repsold. Kazan, univ. obs., lat. +55° 47′ 24-2", long, 3 h. 16 m. 28-9 s. E Founded in 1814, restored in 1842; 61-in. refr. by Merz; meridian circle by Repsold. New obs, built 1899. lat. +55° 50′ 20-0", long. 3 h. 15 m. 16.5 s. E., for Engelhardt's instruments (see Dresden). Kharkov, univ. obs., lat. +50° 0′ 9.6′′, long. 2 h. 24 m. 55-8 s. E.; 61-in. transit circle by Repsold.

Kiev, univ. obs., lat. +50° 27′ 11.8", long. 2 h. 2 m. 0.6s E. Erected in the years 1840-1845; 9-in. refr. by Merz and Repsold; and a meridian circle.

Odessa, univ. obs., lat. +46° 28′ 36.7", long. 2 h. 3 m. 2.0 s. E.; 6 vis. and 6-in. phot. refr.

Odessa, branch of Pulkowa obs., lat. +46° 28′ 37.9", long, 2 h. 3 m. 2-2 s. E. Established 1898 for obs. of more southerly standard stars, with a 4-in. transit by Freiberg and a 4-in. vertical circle by Repsold. Nikolayev, naval obs., lat. +46° 58′ 21.8", long. 2 h. 7 m. 53-8 s. E. Erected in 1824; meridian circle by Ertel of 4-in. ap.; 91-in. refr. by Repsold.

SWEDEN, NORWAY AND DENMARK

Stockholm, lat. +59° 20′ 33.0", long. I h. 12 m. 14.0 s. E., is under the Academy of Sciences. Founded in 1750. Meridian circle by Ertel of 4-in. ap.; 71-in. vis. and 61-in. phot. refr. by Repsold. Upsala, univ. obs., lat. +59° 51′ 29-4", long. I h. 10 m. 30.1 s. E. Founded in 1730, but very little was done until the obs. acquired a 9-in. refr. by Steinheil, which was used by Schultz for micrometric obs. of nebulae. 13-in. phot. and 14-in. vis refr. by Steinheil.

Lund, univ. obs., lat. +55° 41′ 52.0°, long, o h. 52 m. 45.0 s. E. Built in 1866; 9-in. refr., o.g. by Merz; meridian circle by Repsold of 61-in ap.

Christiania, univ. obs., lat. +59° 54′ 44.0", long. oh. 42 m. 53.6 s.E. Erected in 1831; meridian circle by Ertel of 4-ín. ap.; 7-in. refr. by Merz,

Copenhagen, univ. obs. Founded in 1641 on the top of a high tower, lat. +55° 40' 53.0, long. o h. 50 m. 19.8 s. E. The locality was so very unsuitable that O. Römer (the inventor of the transit instrument and modern equat., d. 1710) established his own obs. at Vridlösemagle, at some distance from the city. A new obs. was erected in 1861, lat. +55°41' 12.9", long. o h. 50 m. 18.7s. E., furnished with a refr. by Merz of 11-in. ap., with which H. L. d'Arrest made obs. of nebulae, and a meridian circle by Pistor and Martins of 41-in. ap. Later the refr. was replaced by a 14-in. vis. and 8-in. phot. refr. by Steinheil.

"Copenhagen, Urania obs. (private), lat. +55° 41′ 19:2′′, long. o h. 50 m. 9.1 s. E. Established 1898; 91-in. refr. by Cooke. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM

Leiden, univ. obs., lat. +52° 9′ 20-0′′, long, o h. 17 m. 56·2 s. E. Founded already in 1632, but the instruments were always very small, and hardly any obs. were taken until F. Kaiser became director in 1837. In 1858-1860 a new obs. was erected and furnished with a 7-in. refr. by Merz, and a meridian circle by Pistor and Martins of 6.3-in. ap. Later a 10-in. refr. by Clarke and Repsold has been erected.

Groningen, astron. laboratory of the univ., lat. +53° 13′ 19-1", long. o h. 26 m. 15.2 s. E. Established 1896; instruments for measuring celestial photographs.

Utrecht, univ. obs., lat. +52° 5' 9.5", long. o h. 20 m. 31.0 s. E. Erected in 1855; 10-in. refr. by Steinheil. Brussels, royal obs., lat. +50° 51' 10.7," long. oh. 17 m. 28.6 s. E. Erected in 1829-1834. Had a transit instrument by Gambey and a mural circle by Troughton, but the institution was, while under the direction of L. A. J. Quetelet, chiefly devoted to physics and meteorology. In 1877 a 6-in. refr. by Merz was mounted, and a meridian circle by Repsold and a 15-in. refr. by Cooke provided. A new obs. was erected in 1891 at Uccle, lat. +50° 47' 55.5", long, o h. 17 m. 26.9 s. E., with the instruments from Brussels, a 9-in. phot. refr. by Grubb, and a 13-in. phot. refr. by Gautier.

Liége, univ. obs., lat. +50° 37' 6", long, o h. 22 m. 15-4 s. E.; 10-in. refr. and 7-in. transit circle by Cooke.

UNITED STATES

Albany (New York), Dudley obs. Erected in 1851-1856 by subscription, lat. +42° 39′ 49'5", long. 4 h. 54 m. 59.2 s.W. Refr.by Fitz of 13-in. ap., meridian circle by Pistor and Martins of 8-in. ap. New obs, erected 1893, lat. +42° 39′ 12-7′′, long. 4 h. 55 m. 6-8 s. W.; 12-in. refr. by Brashear.

Allegheny (Pa.), lat. +40° 27′ 41-6°, long. 5 h. 20 m. 2.9 s. W. Founded in 1859, transferred to the Western Univ. of Penn. (now Univ. of Pittsburgh) in 1867; 13-in. refr. by Fitz (improved by Clark), mounted in 1867; instruments for researches on solar energy. Amherst (Mass.), lat. +42° 21' 56.5°, long, 4 h. 50 m. 5.9 s. W. Founded in 1857 as an annex to Amherst College: 7-in. refr. by Clark. New building 1903; 18-in. refr. by Clark; 6-in. transit circle by Pistor and Martins.

Ann Arbor (Michigan), lat. +42° 16′ 48.8", long 5 h. 34 m. 55.2 s. W. Detroit obs. of the Univ. of Michigan; erected in 1854; meridiar. circle by Pistor and Martins of 6 in. ap.; 121-in. refr. by Fitz. Berkeley (Cal), Students' obs. of Univ. of California, lat. +37° 52′ 23.6", long. 8 h. 9 m. 2.7 s. W.; 8-in. refr.

Cambridge (Mass.), Harvard College obs., lat. +42° 22′ 47.6", long. 4 h. 44 m. 310 s. W. Erected in 1839. Refr. of 15-in. ap. by Merz, with which W. C. Bond discovered a satellite of Saturn (Hyperion) in 1848, employed by E. C. Pickering for extensive photometric obs. of fixed stars and satellites; a meridian circle by Troughton and Simms of 81-in. ap., mounted in 1870; 12-in. horizontal telescope for photometric obs. of faint stars, 11-in. and 8-in. Draper refrs. for phot. work; 15-in. Draper refl.; 24-in. phot. doublet (Bruce telescope) with which the ninth and tenth satellites of Saturn have been discovered by W. H. Pickering. Branch obs. at Arequipa, Peru.

Charlottesville (Va.), obs. of Univ. of Virginia, lat. +38° 2' 1·2," long. 5 h. 14 m. 5.2 s. W. Founded 1882; 26-in. refr. by Clark. Chicago (Illinois), Dearborn obs., lat. +41° 51' 1.0, long. 5 h. 50 m. 26-8 s. W. Attached to North-western Univ., founded in 1862; 181-in. refr. by Clark; 6-in. meridian circle by Repsold. Obs. removed to Evanston (Ill.) in 1889, lat. +42° 3′ 33·4′′, long. 5h. 50 m. 42.3 s. W. Cincinnati (Ohio). In 1842 an obs. was founded by subscription, lat. +39° 6' 26.5", long, 5 h. 37 m. 58-9 s. W., and furnished with a refr. of 11-in. ap. by Merz. In 1873 the obs. was removed to a distance from the city, to Mount Lookout, lat. +39° 8' 19.5", long. 5 h. 37 m. 41.3 s. W. 5-in. transit circle by Fauth.

Clinton (New York), Litchfield obs. of Hamilton College, lat. +43° 3' 16.5", long. 5 h. 1 m. 37-4 s. W. Erected by subscription 1852-1855; refr. of 13 in. by Spencer, employed by C. H. F. Peters for construction of celestial charts, in the course of which work he discovered forty-one minor planets.

Columbia (Mo.), Laws obs. of Univ. of Missouri, lat. +38° 56′51.7", long. 6 h. 9 m. 18 3 s. W. Founded 1853; 71-in. refr. by Merz. Columbus (Ohio), State Univ. obs., lat. +40°0' 1", long. 5h. 32 m. 10 s. W.; 12-in. refr. by Brashear and Warner & Swasey. Denver (Col.), Univ.of Denver obs., lat. +39° 40' 36",long.6 h. 59m. 47.6 s. W.; 5400 ft. above sea-level. Founded 1891; 20-in. refr. by Clark; 6-in. refr. by Grubb; 4-in. transit circle by Saegmüller. +35° 12′ 30-5, long. 7 h. 26 m. 44-6 s. W. 7300 ft. above sea-level. Flagstaff (Arizona), private obs. of Percival Lowell, lat. Erected 1894; 24-in. refr. by Clark; 6-in. vis. bv Clark; and 5-in. phot. refr. by Brashear, all used chiefly on planets.

Georgetown (District of Columbia), Georgetown Univ. obs.,lat. +38° 54′ 26.7", long. 5 h. 8 m. 18.3 s. W. Erected in 1844; 12-in. refr. by Clacey and Sacgmüller: 9-in. phot. transit instr.(1899)by Saegmüller; 6-in. phot. zenith telescope by Brashear.

Glasgow (Missouri), Morrison obs., lat. +39° 16′ 16-8", long. 6 h. 124-in. refr. by Clark; meridian circle by Simms of 6-in. ap. 11 m. 18.1 s. W. Founded in 1876; attached to Pritchett College;

Hanover (New Hampshire), Shattuck obs. of Dartmouth College, lat. +43° 42′ 15.3", long. 4 h. 49 m. 7.9 s. W. Founded in 1853; 91-in. refr. by Clark; meridian circle by Simms of 4-in. ap.

Hastings (New York), Professor Henry Draper's obs., lat. +40° 59′ 25. long. 4 h. 55 m. 29.78. W. Built in 1860; 28-in. refl. by the owner, 11-in. refr. (with photo. lens) by Clark, both used up to the owner's death (1882) for celestial and spectrum photography. Haverford (Pa.), Haverford College obs., lat. +40° 0' 40-1", long. 5 h. 1 m. 12.7 s. W.; 10-in. refr. by Clark,

Madison (Wisconsin), Washburn obs., lat. +43° 4′ 36.8", long. 5 h. 57 m. 38.1 s.W. Erected at the expense of Governor Washburn in 1878; belongs to the Univ. of Wisconsin; meridian circle bv Repsold of 4.8-in. ap.; 151-in. refr. by Clark.

Mount Hamilton (Cal.), Lick obs. of the Univ. or California, lat. +37° 20′ 25-6°, long. 8 h. 6 m. 34.9 s. W., about 4250 ft. above sealevel. Erected in pursuance of the will of James Lick (1796-1876), opened in 1888; 36-in. refr. by Clark with 33-in. phot. lens, 12-in. refr by Clark, 6-in. transit circle by Repsold, 3-ft. s.g. refl. by Common, several phot. telescopes, a second 3-ft. s.g. refl. by Brashear with spectrograph. The 5th satellite of Jupiter was discovered by E. E. Barnard in 1892 with the 36 in., and the 6th and 7th by C. D. Perrine on photos with the refl. in 1904-1905.

Mount Wdson (Cal.). Solar obs. of the Carnegie Institution, lat. +34° 12′ 59.5′′, long. 7h. 52 m. 14.3 s. W. Erected 1904; 60-in. refl.: "Snow telescope "with 30-in. coelostat and 24-in. concave mirror with large spectroheliograph. A 100-in. refl. has been

ordered.

New Haven (Connecticut), Winchester obs. of Yale College, lat. +41°19′ 22.3",long. 4 h. 51 m. 40.6 s. W. An obs. had existed since 1830, possessing a 9-in. refr. by Clark and a meridian circle by Ertel. In 1881 the obs. was rebuilt, and furnished with a 6-in. heliometer by Repsold, and an 8-in. refr. by Grubb.

New York, L. M. Rutherfurd's obs., lat. +40° 43′ 48.5′′, long. 4 h. 55 m. 56.6 s.W.; 13-in. refr. by Rutherfurd and Fitz, used for celestial photography. Presented to Columbia College in 1884. New obs. (Wilde), lat. +40° 45' 23.1", long. 4 h. 55 m. 53-6 s.

Northfield (Minnesota), Goodsell obs. of Carleton College, lat. +44° 27' 41-6", long. 6 h. 12 m. 35.8 s. W. Erected in 1878, enlarged 1887; 81-in. refr. by Clark with phot.o.g.; 16-in. refr. by Brashear; 4-in. transit circle by Repsold.

Poughkeepsie (N.Y.), Vassar College obs., lat. +41° 41′ 18′′, long. 4h. 55 m. 33.7s. W. Founded 1865; 12-in. refr. by Fitz and Clark; small transit circle.

Princeton (New Jersey). Attached to Princeton Univ. are two obs.-the "Observatory of Instruction," lat. +40° 20′ 57.8′′, long. 4h. 58 m. 37.6s. W., erected in 1877, and furnished with a 9-in. refr. by Clark; and the Halsted obs., lat. +40° 20′ 55-8", long. 4 h. 58 m. 39-4 s. W., in which a 23-in. refr. by Clark was mounted in 1883. Rochester (New York), Warner obs., lat. +43° 9' 16.8", long. 5h. 10m. 21.8s. W. Erected by H. H. Warner in 1879-1880; 16-in. refr. by Clark. Discontinued 1895.

Washington (D.C.), U.S. naval obs., lat. +38° 53′ 38.8", long. 5h. 8m. 12-1s. W. Organized in 1842; obs. begun in 1845 with a mural circle by Troughton & Simms of 4 in., a transit instrument by Ertel of 5.3-in. ap., and a 9-6-in. refr. by Merz. A meridian circle by Pistor & Martins of 8.5-in. ap., mounted in 1865, and used for observing standard stars and planets; a 26-in. refr. by Clark, mounted in 1873-with this instrument A. Hall discovered the satellites of Mars in 1877. A new obs. on Georgetown Heights was opened in 1893, lat. +38° 55' 14.0", long. 5 h. 8 m. 15.8s. W.; in addition to the old instruments there is a 40-ft. photoheliograph of 5-in. ap., 6-in. transit circle built of steel by Warner & Swasey, 5-in. steel altazimuth by same, 12-in. refr. by Clark.

&c.

Washington (D.C.), astrophysical obs. of the Smithsonian Institution, lat. +38° 53′ 17.3. long. 5h. 8 m. 6.2s. W. Founded 1890 for the study of solar radiation; 20-in. siderostat, spectrobolometer, Williams Bay (Wis.).-Yerkes obs. of Univ. of Chicago, lat. +42° 34' 12-6 long. 5h. 54m. 13.2s. W. Opened 1897; 40-in. refr. by Clark and Warner & Swasey; also a 12-in. refr., 24-in. refl., 10-in. phot. refr.

Williamstown (Mass.), lat. +42° 42′ 49′′, long. 4h. 52 m. 33.5s. W. Founded in 1836; 71-in. refr. by Clark; meridian circle of 41-in. ap. by Repsold, mounted in 1882 in the Field Memorial obs., lat. +42° 40′ 30′′, long. 4 h. 52 m. 50s. W. CANADA

Ottawa, Dominion obs., lat. +45° 23′, long. 5 h. 3 m. W. Founded 1902; 15-in. refr. by Brashear; 8-in. transit circle by Simms; 16-in. coelostat. MEXICO

Tacubaya.-National obs. erected 1882, lat. +19° 24′ 17·5′′, long. 6h. 36 m. 46.7 s. W., 7600 ft. above sea-level; 15-in. refr. by Grubb, 13-in. phot. refr. by Henry & Gautier, 8-in. transit circle by

Simms.

SOUTH AMERICA

Santiago (Chile), national obs., lat. -33° 26' 42.0′′, long. 4 h. 42 m. 46.2 s. W. In 1849 the U.S. government sent an astronomical expedition to Chile. When the expedition returned in 1852, the government of Chile bought the instruments-a 6-in. meridian circle by Pistor and Martins, a 61-in. refr. by Fitz, &c. New building erected 1860; 91-in. refr. by Merz and Repsold, 13-in. phot. refr. by

Gautier.

Arequipa (Peru).-Branch of Harvard College obs., lat. -16° 24', long. 4 h. 45 m. 30 s. W., 8060 ft. above sea-level; 24-in. Bruce refr. by Clark; and 13-in. Boyden telescope for phot. charts and spectra of faint stars; 4-in. transit photometer extends the Harvard photometry to the south pole.

Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), national obs., lat. -22° 54′ 23.7′′, long. 2 h. 52 m. 41-4 s. W. Founded in 1845; no work done until 1871. The principal instruments are a meridian circle by Gautier of 71-in. ap., an altazimuth, a 91-in. refr. by Henry, &c.

Cordoba (Argentina), national obs., lat. 31° 25′ 15.4" long. 4 h. 16 m. 45.1 s. W. Erected in 1871 under the direction of B. Å. Gould till 1883. With a meridian circle by Repsold of 5-in. ap. 105,000 zone obs. of stars between -23° and -80° decl. have been made; 11-in. phot. refr. by Clarke; 5-in. phot. refr. by Henry & Gautier.

La Plata (Argentina), univ. obs., lat. -34° 54′ 30.3", long 3 h. 51 m. 37.0 s. W. Founded 1883; 18-in. equat. coudée, 13-in phot. refr. and transit circle, all by Henry & Gautier.

AFRICA

Cape of Good Hope, royal obs., lat. -33° 56′ 3′5′′, long, 1 h. 13 m. 54-8 s. E. Founded in 1820; erected in 1825-1829, about 31 m. from Cape Town. Obs. were begun in 1829 with a transit instrument by Dollond of 5-in. ap. and a mural circle by Jones. Thomas Maclear undertook to verify and extend the arc of meridian measured by N. L. de Lacaille in 1751-1753, which work occupied the obs. staff for a number of years. In 1849 a 7-in. refr. by Merz was mounted, and in 1855 a new meridian circle, a facsimile of the one at Greenwich, superseded the older instruments. Maclear was succeeded by E. J. Stone (1870 to 1879), who devoted himself and the staff to obs. of stars, embodied in a catalogue of 12,441 stars for the epoch 1880. Under Sir David Gill (1879-1906) a 7-in. heliometer by Repsold has been used since 1887 for researches on solar parallax

has been made south of -23° decl. with a 6-in. phot. Dallmeyer lens. A 24-in. phot. and 18-in. vis. refr. by Grubb, with 24-in. o.g. prism, and a 6-in. transit circle by Simms have also been mounted. Besides the obs. of Lacaille in Cape Town (lat. -33° 55′ 16-1′′, long. 1 h. 13 m. 41 s. E.), another temporary obs. at Feldhausen, lat. -33° 58′ 56-6", long. 1 h. 13 m. 51 s. E., 6 m. from Cape Town, deserves to be mentioned. It was here that Sir John Herschel observed nebulae and double stars from 1834 to 1838 with a refl. of 181-in. ap. Durban (Natal).-Government obs., lat. -29° 50′ 46.6", long. 2 h. 4 m. 1-2 s. E. Erected in 1882; 8-in. refr. by Grubb. Mauritius. Royal Alfred obs., lat. -20° 5′ 39", long, 3 h. 50 m. 12.5 s. E. Chiefly meteorological, but solar photos regularly taken. Helwan (near Cairo, Egypt), khedivial obs., lat. +29° 51′ 34′′. long. 2 h. 5 m. 22 s. E. Erected in 1904; 30-in. refl. used for photos of southern nebulae.

Algiers (Algeria), national obs., lat. +36° 47' 50", long. o h. 12 m. 8.4 s. E. Founded 1881; 12-5-in. equat. coudée and 13-in. phot. refr. by Gautier; transit circle. St Helena, lat. -15° 55′ 26.0", long, o h. 22 m. 54.6 s. W. With a transit instrument and mural circle M. Johnson observed the places of 606 southern stars from 1829 to 1833.

INDIA

Madras, government obs., lat. +13° 4′ 8.0", long. 5 h. 20 m. 59.6 s. E. In 1831 a transit instrument and a mural circle, both of 31-in. ap., by Dollond, were mounted, and with these T. G. Taylor observed 11,000 stars. A meridian circle by Simms was mounted in 1858, and in 1865 an 8-in. refr., also by Simms, was put up; with the former 5303 stars were observed in 1862-1887. New obs. built in 1899 at Kodaikanal (Palni Hills), lat. +10° 13′ 50′′, long. 5 h. 9 m. 52 s. E., 7700 ft. above sea-level; 12-in. siderostat and phot. vis. o.g. by Cooke, spectroheliograph, &c. To be devoted chiefly to solar physics.

Poona. Obs. of College of Science. Founded 1888. 12-in. siderostat by Cooke with 9-in. lens by Grubb; 161-in. s.g. refl. by Grubb, with 6-in. refr. by Cooke; spectroscopes, &c., chiefly for solar work.

Dehra Dun.-Obs. of Indian Survey, lat. +30° 18′ 51-8", long. 5 h. 12 m. 13.5 s. E. Regular solar phot. work.

Trivandrum, lat. + 8° 30' 32", long. 5 h. 7 m. 59 s. E. Founded by the raja of Travancore in 1836. No astronomical work done, but valuable magnetical and meteorological obs. were made by J. A. Broun from 1852 to 1863.

JAPAN

51-in. transit circle by Repsold; 61-in. refr. Tokyo, univ. obs., lat. +35° 39' 17.5", long. 9 h. 18 m. 58.0 s. E.;

CHINA

Zo-Se (near Shanghai), Jesuit obs., lat. +31° 5' 47.1", long. for solar and stellar phot. and spectroscopic work. 8 h. 4 m. 44.7 s. E. Erected 1899-1901; 16-in. vis., and phot. refr.

the colonial government established an obs., furnished with a 6-in. Hong Kong, lat. +22° 18 13.2", long. 7 h. 36 m. 41-9 s. E. In 1883 refr., a small transit instrument and full equipment of magnetical and meteorological instruments.

Paramatta (New South Wales), lat. -33° 48′ 50′′, long. 10 h. 4 m. 6.3 s. E. Erected by Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane in 1821; with a transit instrument and a mural circle by Troughton. From handed over to the New South Wales government in 1826; furnished about 1835 no obs. seem to have been made; the obs. was abolished in 1855.

Sydney (New South Wales), lat. -33° 51′ 41-1′′, long. 10 h. 4 m. 49.5 s. E. Founded in 1855; furnished with the instruments from refr. by Schröder, were mounted; in 1879 a meridian circle by Simms Paramatta. In 1861 a 71-in. refr. by Merz, and in 1874 an 11-in. of 6-in. ap. was acquired, and later a 13-in. phot, refr. by Grubb.

Windsor (New South Wales), lat. 33° 36′ 28.9", long. 10 h. 3 m. 21.7 s. E. Private obs. of Mr J. Tebbutt, who has devoted himself since 1861 to discoveries and obs. of comets, using a 41-in. refr. by Cooke and an 8-in. refr. by Grubb.

Melbourne (Victoria).-Founded in 1853 at Williamstown, lat. -37° 52′ 7.2", long. 9 h. 39 m. 38-8 s. E. In 1861 a meridian circle by Simms of 5-in. ap. was mounted, but in 1863 the obs. was removed to Melbourne, lat. -37° 49′ 53-2", long. 9 h. 39 m. 54.0 s. E. "The great Melbourne telescope," a Cassegrain refl., equatorially mounted, of 4-ft. ap., made by T. Grubb, was erected in 1869, but very little used; there is also an 8-in. refr. by Cooke and a 13-in. phot, refr. by Grubb.

Adelaide (South Australia), lat. -34° 55' 33.8", long. 9 h. 14 m. 21.3 s. E. In operation since 1861; has been gradually improved, and contains now an 8-in. refr. by Cooke and a 6-in. transit circle by Simms.

Perth (West Australia), lat. -31° 57′ 7.4", long. 7 h. 43 m. 21.7 s. E. Founded 1897: 13-in. phot. and 10-in. vis. refr. by Grubb; 6-in. transit circle by Simms. AUTHORITIES. In addition to their Annals or Observations, the leading national obs. (Greenwich, Paris, Washington, &c.) publish annual reports stating the nature of the work and changes in personnel and instruments. Short reports from nearly all British obs. are annually published in the February number of the Monthly Notices R. Astr. Soc., and from most German and some other continental obs. in the Vierteljahrsschrift d. astr. Gesellschaft. Since 1889 much information about American obs. is given in the Publications of the Astr. Soc. of the Pacific. Stroobant's Les Observatoires astronomiques et les astronomes (Brussels, 1907) gives a convenient summary of the personnel and equipment of all existing obs. (J. L. É. D.)

OBSIDIAN, a glassy volcanic rock of acid composition. A similar rock was named obsianus by medieval writers, from its resemblance to a rock discovered in Ethiopia by one Obsius. The early printed editions of Pliny erroneously named the discoverer Obsidius, and the rock obsidianus. Rhyolitic lavas frequently are more or less vitreous, and when the glassy matter greatly predominates and the crystals are few and inconspicuous the rock becomes an obsidian; the chemical composition is essentially the same as that of granite; the difference in the physical condition of the two rocks is due to the fact that one consolidated at the surface, rapidly and under low pressures, while the other cooled slowly at great depths and under such pressures that the escape of the steam and other gases it contained was greatly impeded. Few obsidians are entirely vitreous; usually they have small crystals of felspar, quartz, biotite or iron oxides, and when these are numerous the rock is called a porphyritic obsidian (or hyalo-liparite). These crystals have, as a rule, very good crystalline form, but the quartz and felspar are often filled with enclosures of glass.

All obsidians have a low specific gravity (about 2.4) both because they are acid rocks and because they are non-crystalline. Their lustre is vitreous except when they contain many minute crystals; they are then velvety or even resinous in appearance. Thin splinters and the sharp edges of fragments are transparent. Black, grey, yellow and brown are the prevalent colours of these rocks. In hand specimens they often show a well-marked banding which is sometimes flat and parallel, but may be sinuous and occasionally is very irregular, resembling the pattern of damascened steel. In such cases the molten rock cannot have been homogeneous, and as it flowed along the ground the different portions of it were drawn out into long parallel streaks. As the rock was highly viscous and the surface over which it moved was often irregular the motion was disturbed and fluctuating; hence the sinuous and contorted appearance frequently assumed by the banding. When crystals are present they generally have their long axes parallel to the fluxion.

Even when conspicuous and well formed crystals are not visible in the rock there is nearly always an abundance of minute imperfect crystallizations (microlites, &c.). They are often so small that high magnifications may be necessary to ascertain their presence. Some are globular and others are rod-shaped; they may be grouped in clusters, stars, rosettes, rows, chains or swarms of indefinite shape. In banded obsidians these microlites may be numerous in some parts but few or absent in others. The larger ones polarize light, have angular outlines like those of crystals, and may even show twinning and definite optical properties by which they can be identified as belonging to felspar, augite or some other rock-forming mineral. The variety of their shapes is endless. Some are black, very thin and curved like threads or hairs (trichites); often a group of these is seated on a small crystal of augite or magnetite and spreads outwards on all sides. Others have hollow or funnel-shaped ends and are constricted at the middle like a dice cup. In some rocks small rod-like microlites are grouped together in a regular way to form growths which resemble fir branches, fern leaves, brushes or networks, in the same manner as minute needles of ice produce star-like snow crystals or the frost growths on a window pane.

These crystallites (q.v.) show that the glassy rock has a tendency to crystallize which is inhibited only by the very viscous state

of the glass and the rapidity with which it was cooled. Another type of incipient crystallization which is excessively common in obsidian is spherulites (q.v.), or small rounded bodies which have a radiating fibrous structure. They are of globular shape, less frequently irregular or branching, and may be elongated and Cylindrical (axiolites). In some obsidians from Teneriffe and Lipari the whole rock consists of them, so closely packed.together that they assume polygonal shapes like the cells of a honeycomb. In polarized light they show a weak grey colour with a black cross, the arms of which are parallel to the cobwebs in the eyepiece of the microscope and remain stationary when the section is rotated. Often bands of spherulites alternate with bands of pure glass, a fact which seems to indicate that the growth of these bodies took place before the rock ceased to flow. As cooling progresses the glassy rock contracts and strain phenomena appear in consequence. Porphyritic crystals often contract less than the surrounding glass, which accordingly becomes strained, and in polarized light may show a weak double refraction in a limited area surrounding the crystal. Minute cracks are sometimes produced by the contraction; they are often more or less straight, but in other cases a very perfect system of rounded fissures arises. These surround little spherules of glass which are detached when the rock is struck with a hammer. There may be concentric series of cracks one within another. The minute globular bodies have occasionally a sub-pearly lustre, and glassy rocks which possess this structure have been called perlites (q.v.). If we take a thin layer of natural Canada balsam and heat it strongly for a little time most of the volatile oils are driven out of it. When it cools it becomes hard, but if before it is quite cold we plunge it into cold water a very perfect perlitic structure will arise in it. Occasionally the rounded cracks extend from the matrix into some of the crystals especially those of quartz which have naturally a conchoidal fracture. If the matrix, however, is originally crystalline it does not seem probable that perlitic structure can develop in it. Hence it may be regarded as diagnostic of rocks which were vitreous when they consolidated.

In mineralogical collections rounded nodules of brown glass, varying from the size of a pea to that of an orange, may often be seen labelled marekanite. They have long been known to geologists and are found at Okhotsk, Siberia, in association with a large mass of perlitic obsidian. These globular bodies are, in fact, merely the more coherent portions of a perlite; the rest of the rock falls down in a fine powder setting free the glassy spheres. They are subject to considerable internal strain, as is shown by the fact that when struck with a hammer or sliced with a lapidary's saw they often burst into fragments. Their behaviour in this respect closely resembles the balls of rapidly cooled, unannealed glass which are called Prince Rupert's drops. In their natural condition the marekanite spheres are doubly refracting, but when they have been heated and very slowly cooled they lose this property and no longer exhibit any tendency to sudden disintegration.

Although rocks wholly or in large part vitreous are known from very ancient geological systems, such as the Devonian, they are certainly most frequent in recent volcanic countries. Yet among the older rocks there are many which, though finely crystalline, have the chemical composition of modern obsidians and possess structures, such as the perlitic and spherulitic, which are very characteristic of vitreous rocks. By many lines of evidence we are led to believe that obsidians in course of time suffer devitrification, in other words they pass from the vitreous into a crystalline state. long time for their achievement, and the crystals produced are only but as the changes take place in a solid mass they require a very of extremely small size. A dull stony-looking rock results, the vitreous lustre having entirely disappeared, and in microscopic section this exhibits a cryptocrystalline structure, being made up of this felsitic devitrified glass is so fine-grained that its constituents exceedingly minute grains principally of quartz and felspar. Often cannot be directly determined even with the aid of the microscope. but chemical analysis leaves little doubt as to the real nature of the minerals which have been formed. Many vitreous rocks show alteration of this type in certain parts where either the glass has been of unstable nature or where agencies of change such as percolat ing water have had easiest access (as along joints, perlitic cracks and the margins of dikes and sills).. Obsidians from Lipari often

have felsitic bands alternating with others which are purely glassy. In Arran there are pitchstone dikes, some of which are very completely vitreous, while others are changed to spherulitic felsites more or less silicified. The pitchstone of the Scuir of Eigg is at its margins characterized by a dull semi-opaque matrix which seems to be the result of secondary devitrification. In the same way artificial glass can be devitrified if it be kept at a temperature slightly below the fusing point for some days. Window glass exposed to alkaline vapours often shows a thin iridescent surface film which is supposed to be due to crystallization; the same change is found in pieces of Roman glass which have been dug out of the ruins of Pompeii.

Obsidian, when broken, shows a conchoidal fracture, like that of glass, and yields sharp-edged fragments, which have been used in many localities as arrow-points, spear-heads, knives and razors. For such purposes, as also for use as mirrors, masks and labrets, it was extensively employed, under the name of itztli, by the ancient Mexicans, who quarried it at the Cerro de las Navajas, or "Hill of Knives," near Timapan. The natives of the Admiralty Islands have used it for the heads of spears. By the ancient Greeks and Romans obsidian was worked as a gem-stone; and in consequence of its having been often imitated in glass there arose among collectors of gems in the 18th century the practice of calling all antique pastes "obsidians." At the present time obsidian is sometimes cut and polished as an ornamental stone, but its softness (H=5 to 5.5) detracts from its value. Certain varieties, notably some from Russia, possess a beautiful metallic sheen, referable to the presence of either microscopic fissures or enclosures. The substance known as moldavite, often regarded as an obsidian, and the so-called obsidian bombs, or obsidianites, are described under MOLDAVITE. (J. S. F.)

OBSTETRICS, the science and art of midwifery (Lat. obstetrix, a midwife, from obstare, to stand before). Along with Medicine and Surgery, Obstetrics goes to form what has been called the Tripos of the medical profession, because every person desiring to be registered under the Medical Acts must pass a qualifying examination alike in medicine, surgery and midwifery. The term Gynaecology (q.v.), which has come to be applied to the study of the diseases of the female generative system, in its primary sense includes all that pertains to women both in health and disease. Obstetrics, or midwifery, is more specially that part of the science of gynaecology which deals with the care of a pregnant woman and the ushering of her child into the world.

Tokology-the doctrine of parturition-is the most distinctive sphere of interest for obstetricians, and here their activities bring them into a closer approximation to the work of surgeons. As a science it demands a study of the phenomena of labour, which in their ordered succession are seen to present three distinct stages: one of preparation, during which the uterus dilates sufficiently to allow of the escape of the infant; a second, of progress, during which the infant is expelled; and a third, of the extrusion of the after-birth or placenta. In each of the stages analysis of the phenomena reveals the presence of three elements which are known as the factors of labour, viz. the powers or forces which are engaged in the emptying of the uterus; the passages or canals through which the ovum is driven; and

by the breech and feet, or lies transversely as a cross-birth, and has usually to be delivered artificially. Operative or instrumental labours vary according as the procedures adopted are safe in principle to mother and child, such as turning and the application of the midwifery forceps; or as they involve damage to the infant in the various forms of embryotomy; or are more dangerous to the mother, as in the Caesarean section and symphysiotomy. A final class of labours includes the cases where some complication or anomaly arises and becomes a source of danger, independently of disturbances of the mechanism or of any operative interference. These complex labours are due to complications that may be maternal, such as haemorrhage and convulsions; or foetal, such as twins or prolapse of the umbilical cord. To cope with these anomalies an obstetrician requires all the resource of a physician and all the dexterity of a surgeon.

The interest of obstetricians in their patients does not end with the birth of the children, even after natural labours. The puerpera is still a subject of care. The uterus, that during its nine months' evolution had been increasing enormously in all its clements, has in six weeks to undergo an involution that will restore it to its pregravid condition. The allied organs share in their measure in the change, all the systems of the body feel the influence, and especially the mammary glands take on their function of providing milk for the nutriment of the new-born infant. A patient with some latent flaw in her constitution may pass the test of pregnancy and labour with success, only to succumb during the puerperium. Of patients who become insane in connexion with child-bearing, a half manifest their mental disorder first during the days or weeks immediately succeeding their confinement, and numbers more whilst they are suckling their infants. A woman may have had an easy labour, and may have been thankful at the time for help from a hand that she did not know to be unclean; three days later germs left by that hand may have so multiplied within her that she is in mortal danger from septicaemia. The management of the puerperal patient requires not only the warding off of deleterious influences, but the watching of the normal processes, because slight deviations in these, undetected and uncorrected now, may become later a source of lifelong invalidism. It remains further to be noted that to obstetricians belong the earliest stages of pediatrics in their care of the new-born child. In some old works practitioners of this branch of the profession are described as dupaλoróμo, because their first business was to cut the umbilical cord. The causes of the high death-rate among infants, whether due to ante-natal, intra-natal or neo-natal conditions, come under their observation. They have charge of the whole wide field of the hygiene, pathology and therapeutics of infancy.