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Dutch fleet-thirteen vessels in the Nieuwe Diep-the sailors | having refused to fight for the republic. In spite of the failure on land, the expedition did much to confirm the naval supremacy of Great Britain by the entire suppression of the most seamanlike of the forces opposed to it.

AUTHORITIES.-Chevalier, Histoire de la marine française sous la première République (Paris, 1886); James's Naval History (London, 1837); Captain Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and the Empire (London, 1892). The French schemes of invasion are exhaustively dealt with in Captain E. Desbrière's Projets et tentatives de débarquements aux Iles Britanniques (Paris, 1900, &c.). (D. H.) FRENCH WEST AFRICA (L'Afrique occidentale française), the common designation of the following colonies of France:-(1) Senegal, (2) Upper Senegal and Niger, (3) Guinea, (4) the Ivory Coast, (5) Dahomey; of the territory of Mauretania, and of a large portion of the Sahara. The area is estimated at nearly 2,000,000 sq. m,, of which more than half is Saharan territory. The countries thus grouped under the common designation French West Africa comprise the greater part of the continent west of the Niger delta (which is British territory) and south of the tropic of Cancer. It embraces the upper and middle course of the Niger, the whole of the basin of the Senegal and the southwestern part of the Sahara. Its most northern point on the coast is Cape Blanco, and it includes Cape Verde, the most westerly point of Africa. Along the Guinea coast the French possessions are separated from one another by colonies of Great Britain and other powers, but in the interior they unite not only with one another but with the hinterlands of Algeria and the French Congo.

have expressly legislated. To it is confided financial control over the colonies, responsibility for the public debt, the direction of the departments of education and agriculture, and the carrying out of works of general utility. It alone communicates with the home authorities. Its expenses are met by the duties levied on goods and vessels entering and leaving any port of French West Africa. It may make advances to the colonies under its care, and may, in case of need, demand from them contributions to the central exchequer. The administration of justice is centralized and uniform for all French West Africa. The court of appeal sits at Dakar. There is also a uniform system of land registration adopted in 1906 and based on that in force in Australia. Subject to the limitations indicated the five colonies enjoy autonomy. The territory of Mauretania is administered by a civil commissioner under the direct control of the governorgeneral. The colony of Senegal is represented in the French parliament by one deputy.

Since the changes in administration effected in 1895 the commerce of French West Africa has shown a steady growth, the volume of external trade increasing in the ten years 1895-1904 from £3,151,094 to £6,238,091. In 1907 the value of the trade was £7.097,000; of this 53% was with France. Apart from military expenditure, about £600,000 a year, which is borne by France, French West Africa is self-supporting. The general budget for 1906 balanced at £1,356,000. There is a public debt of some £11,000,000, mainly incurred for works of general utility. See SENEGAL, FRENCH GUINEA, IVORY COAST and DAHOMEY. For Anglo-French boundaries east of the Niger see SAHARA and NIGERIA. For the constitutional connexion between the colonies and France see FRANCE Colonies. An account of the economic situation of the colonies is given by G. François in Le Gouvernement général de l'Afrique occidentale française (Paris, 1908). Consult also the annual Report on the Trade, Agriculture, &c. of French West Africa issued by the British foreign office A map of French West Africa by A. Meunier and E. Barralier (6 sheets on the scale 1:2,000,000) was published in Paris, 1903.

In physical characteristics French West Africa presents three types: (1) a dense forest region succeeding a narrow coast belt greatly broken by lagoons, (2) moderately elevated and fertile plateaus, generally below 2000 ft., such as the region enclosed in the great bend of the Niger; (3) north of the Senegal and Niger, the desert lands forming part of the Sahara (q.v) The most FRENTANI, one of the ancient Samnite tribes which formed elevated districts are Futa Jallon, whence rise the Senegal, an independent community on the east coast of Italy They Gambia and Niger, and Gon-both massifs along the south-entered the Roman alliance after their capital, Frentrum, was western edge of the plateau lands, containing heights of 5000 to 6000 ft. or more. Among the chief towns are Timbuktu and Jenné on the Niger, Porto Novo in Dahomey, and St Louis and Dakar in Senegal, Dakar being an important naval and commercial port. The inhabitants are for the most part typical Negroes, with in Senegal and in the Sahara an admixture of Berber and Arab tribes. In the upper Senegal and Futa Jallon large numbers of the inhabitants are Fula. The total population of French West Africa is estimated at about 13,000,000. The European inhabitants number about 12,000.

The French possessions in West Africa have grown by the extension inland of coast colonies, each having an independent origin. They were first brought under one general government in 1895, when they were placed under the supervision of the governor of Senegal, whose title was altered to meet the new situation. Between that date and 1905 various changes in the areas and administrations of the different colonies were made, involving the disappearance of the protectorates and military territories known as French Sudan and dependent on Senegal. These were partly absorbed in the coast colonies, whilst the central portion became the colony of Upper Senegal and Niger. At the same time the central government was freed from the direct administration of the Senegal and Niger countries. (Decrees of Oct. 1902 and Oct. 1904) Over the whole of French West Africa is a governor-general, whose headquarters are at Dakar He is assisted by a government council, composed of high functionaries, including the lieutenant-governors of all colonies under his control. The central government, like all other French colonial administrations, is responsible, not to the colonists, but to the home government, and its constitution is alterable at will by presidential decree save in matters on which the chambers 1 The organization of the new government was largely the work of E. N. Roume (b 1858), governor-general 1902-1907, an able and energetic official, formerly director of Asian affairs at the colonial ministry.

taken by the Romans in 305 or 304 B.C. (Livy ix. 16. 45). This town either changed its name or perished some time after the middle of the 3rd century B.C., when it was issuing coins of its own with an Oscan legend. The town Larinum, which belonged to the same people (Pliny, Nat. Hist. iii. 103), became latinized before 200 B.C., as its coins of that epoch bear a legendLARINOR(VM)—which cannot reasonably be treated as anything but Latin. Several Oscan inscriptions survive from the neighbourhood of Vasto (anc. Histonium), which was in the Frentane area.

On the forms of the name, and for further details see R.S.Conway, Italic Dialects, p. 206 ff and p. 212: for the coins id. No. 195-196. FREPPEL, CHARLES ÉMILE (1827-1891), French bishop and politician, was born at Oberehnheim (Obernai), Alsace, on the 1st of June 1827. He was ordained priest in 1849 and for a short time taught history at the seminary of Strassburg, where he had previously received his clerical training. In 1854 he was appointed professor of theology at the Sorbonne, and became known as a successful preacher. He went to Rome in 1869, at the instance of Pius IX., to assist in the steps preparatory to the promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility. He was con secrated bishop of Angers in 1870. During the Franco-German war Freppel organized a body of priests to minister to the French prisoners in Germany, and penned an eloquent protest to the emperor William I against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine In 1880 he was elected deputy for Brest and continued to represent it until his death. Being the only priest in the Chamber of Deputies since the death of Dupanloup, he became the chief parliamentary champion of the Church, and, though no orator, was a frequent speaker On all ecclesiastical affairs Freppel voted with the Royalist and Catholic party, yet on questions in which French colonial prestige was involved, such as the expedi tion to Tunis, Tong-King, Madagascar (1881, 1883-85), he He always remained a supported the government of the day. staunch Royalist and went so far as to oppose Leo XIII 's policy

FRERE, SIR H. B. E.

of conciliating the Republic. He died at Angers on the 12th of | of South Africa on the 31st of March 1877
December 1891. Freppel's historical and theological works
form 30 vols., the best known of which are: Les Pères apostoliques
et leur époque (1859); Les Apologistes chrétiens au II° siècle
(2 vols., 1860); Saint Irénée et l'éloquence chrétienne dans la Gaule
aux deux premiers siècles (1861); Tertullien (2 vols., 1863);
Saint Cyprien et l'Église d'Afrique (1864); Clément d'Alexandrie
(1855); Origène (2 vols., 1867).

There are interesting lives by E. Cornut (Paris, 1893) and F.
Charpentier (Angers, 1904).

FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD (1815-1884),
British administrator, born at Clydach in Brecknockshire, on
the 29th of March 1815, was the son of Edward Frere, a member
of an old east county family, and a nephew of John Hookham
Frere, of Anti-Jacobin and Aristophanes fame. After leaving
Haileybury, Bartle Frere was appointed a writer in the Bombay
civil service in 1834, and went out to India by way of Egypt,
crossing the Red Sea in an open boat from Kosseir to Mokha,
and sailing thence to Bombay in an Arab dhow. Having passed
his examination in the native languages, he was appointed
assistant collector at Poona in 1835. There he did valuable
work and was in 1842 chosen as private secretary to Sir George
Arthur, governor of Bombay. Two years later he became
political resident at the court of the rajah of Satara, where he
did much to benefit the country by the development of its com
munications. On the rajah's death in 1848 he administered the
province both before and after its formal annexation in 1849.
In 1850 he was appointed chief commissioner of Sind, and took
ample advantage of the opportunities afforded him of developing
the province. He pensioned off the dispossessed amirs, improved
the harbour at Karachi, where he also established municipal
buildings, a museum and barracks, instituted fairs, multiplied
roads, canals and schools.

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by Lord Carnarvon in the previous October as the statesman most capable of carrying his scheme of confederation into effect. and within two years it was hoped that he would be the first He bad been chosen governor of the South African Dominion. harmony with the aims and enthusiasm of his chief," hoping to He went out in at the close of his high commissionership, a great mistake seemed crown by one great constructive effort the work of a bright and noble life." In this hope he was disappointed. As he stated from natural growth, and the state of South Africa during Frere's to have been made in trying to hasten what could only result tenure of office was inimical to such growth.

tives presented to Frere upon his arrival at the Cape. He chose the former as the less dangerous, and the first year of Discord or a policy of blind drifting seemed to be the alternahis sway was marked by a Kaffir war on the one hand and by a rupture with the Cape (Molteno-Merriman) ministry on the other. The Transkei Kaffirs were subjugated early in 1878 by General Thesiger (the 2nd Lord Chelmsford) and a small force of regular and colonial troops. The constitutional difficulty entrusting the formation of a ministry to Mr (afterwards Sir) Gordon Sprigg. Frere emerged successfully from a year of crisis, was solved by Frere dismissing his obstructive cabinet and but the advantage was more than counterbalanced by the resignation of Lord Carnarvon early in 1878, at a time when Frere required the steadiest and most unflinching support. He had reached the conclusion that there was a widespread insurgent spirit pervading the natives, which had its focus and strength in the celibate military organization of Cetywayo and in the prestige which impunity for the outrages he had committed had gained for the Zulu king in the native mind. That organization and that evil prestige must be put an end to, if possible Returning to India in 1857 after a well-earned rest, Frere these views to the colonial office, where they found a general was greeted at Karachi with news of the mutiny. His rule had acceptance. When, however, Frere undertook the responsibility by moral pressure, but otherwise by force. Frere reiterated been so successful that he felt he could answer for the internal of forwarding, in December 1878, an ultimatum to Cetywayo, peace of his province. He therefore sent his only European the home government abruptly discovered that a native war regiment to Multan, thus securing that strong fortress against in South Africa was inopportune and raised difficulties about the rebels, and sent further detachments to aid Sir John Lawrence reinforcements. Having entrusted to Lord Chelmsford the in the Punjab. The 178 British soldiers who remained in Sind enforcement of the British demands, Frere's immediate responsiproved sufficient to extinguish such insignificant outbreaks bility ceased. as occurred. His services were fully recognized by the Indian crossed the Tugela, and fourteen days later the disaster of Isandhl. authorities, and he received the thanks of both houses of On the 11th of January 1879 the British troops parliament and was made K.C.B. He became a member of the House of Commons, was but feebly defended by the government. viceroy's council in 1859, and was especially serviceable in Lord Beaconsfield, it appears, supported Frere, the majority wana was reported, and Frere, attacked and censured in the financial matters. In 1862 he was appointed governor of of the cabinet were inclined to recall him. The result was the Bombay, where he effected great improvements, such as the unsatisfactory compromise by which he was censured and begged demolition of the old ramparts, and the erection of handsome to stay on. public offices upon a portion of the space, the inauguration of which was adversely commented on by the colonial secretary the university buildings and the improvement of the harbour. Frere wrote an elaborate justification of his conduct, He established the Deccan College at Poona, as well as a college take notice of attacks, and as to the war, all African wars had for instructing natives in civil engineering. The prosperity-been unpopular." Frere's rejoinder was that no other sufficient (Sir Michael Hicks Beach), who " due to the American Civil War-which rendered these developdid not see why Frere should ments possible brought in its train a speculative mania, which led eventually to the disastrous failure of the Bombay Bank | (1866), an affair in which, from neglecting to exercise such means of control as he possessed, Frere incurred severe and not wholly undeserved censure. In 1867 he returned to England, was made G.C.S.I., and received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cambridge; he was also appointed a member of the Indian council. In 1872 he was sent by the foreign office to Zanzibar to negotiate a treaty with the sultan, Seyyid Burghash, for the suppression of the slave traffic. In 1875 he accompanied the prince of Wales to Egypt and India. The tour was beyond expectation successful, and to Frere, from Queen Victoria downwards, came acknowledgments of the service he had rendered in piloting the expedition. He was asked by Lord Beaconsfield to choose between being made a baronet or G.C.B. He chose the former, but the queen bestowed both honours upon him. But the greatest service that Frere undertook on behalf of his country was to be attempted not in Asia, but in Africa. Sir Bartle landed at Cape Town as high commissioner

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answer had been made to his critics, and that he wished to place necessity of the suppression of the Zulu rebellion. Few, I fear, in this generation. But unless my countrymen are much changed, one on record. "Few may now agree with my view as to the they will some day do me justice. I shall not leave a name to be permanently dishonoured."

the Transvaal reacted upon each other in the most disastrous The Zulu trouble and the disaffection that was brewing in the Transvaal, which was announced by Sir Theophilus Shepstone manner. Frere had borne no part in the actual annexation of The delay in giving the country a constitution afforded a pretext for agitation to the malcontent Boers, a rapidly increasing a few days after the high commissioner's arrival at Cape Town. minority, while the reverse at Isandhlwana had lowered British prestige. Owing to the Kaffir and Zulu wars Sir Bartle had hitherto been unable to give his undivided attention to the state of things in the Transvaal. In April 1879 he was at last able to that the government had been unsatisfactory in many ways. visit that province, and the conviction was forced upon him The country was very unsettled. A large camp, numbering

4000 disaffected Boers, had been formed near Pretoria, and they were terrorizing the country. Frere visited them unarmed and practically alone. Even yet all might have been well, for he won the Boers' respect and liking. On the condition that the Boers dispersed, Frere undertook to present their complaints to the British government, and to urge the fulfilment of the promises that had been made to them. They parted with mutual good feeling, and the Boers did eventually disperse on the very day upon which Frere received the telegram announcing the government's censure. He returned to Cape Town, and his journey back was in the nature of a triumph. But bad news awaited him at Government House on the 1st of June 1879 the prince imperial had met his death in Zululand-and a few hours later Frere heard that the government of the Transvaal and Natal, together with the high commissionership in the eastern part of South Africa, had been transferred from him to Sir Garnet Wolseley.

When Gladstone's ministry came into office in the spring of 1880, Lord Kimberley had no intention of recalling Frere. In June, however, a section of the Liberal party memorialized Gladstone to remove him, and the prime minister weakly complied (1st August 1880). Upon his return Frere replied to the charges relating to his conduct respecting Afghanistan as well as South Africa, previously preferred in Gladstone's Midlothian speeches, and was preparing a fuller vindication when he died at Wimbledon from the effect of a severe chill on the 29th of May 1884. He was buried in St Paul's, and in 1888 a statue of Frere upon the Thames embankment was unveiled by the prince of Wales. Frere edited the works of his uncle, Hookham Frere, and the popular story-book, Old Deccan Days, written by his daughter, Mary Frere. He was three times president of the Royal Asiatic Society.

His Life and Correspondence, by John Martineau, was published in 1895. For the South African anti-confederation view, see PA. Molteno's Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno (2 vols., London 1900). See also SOUTH AFRICA: History.

FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM (1769–1846), English diplomatist and author, was born in London on the 21st of May 1769. His father, John Frere, a gentleman of a good Suffolk family, had been educated at Caius College, Cambridge, and would have been senior wrangler in 1763 but for the redoubtable competition of Paley; his mother, daughter of John Hookham, a rich London merchant, was a lady of no small culture, accustomed to amuse her leisure with verse-writing. His father's sister Eleanor, who married Sir John Fenn (1739-1794), the learned editor of the Paston Letters, wrote various educational works for children under the pseudonyms " Mrs Lovechild "and" Mrs Teach well." Young Frere was sent to Eton in 1785, and there began an intimacy with Canning which greatly affected his after life, From Eton he went to his father's college at Cambridge, and graduated B.A. in 1792 and M.A. in 1795. He entered public service in the foreign office under Lord Grenville, and sat from 1796 to 1802 as member of parliament for the close borough of West Looe in Cornwall.

From his boyhood he had been a warm admirer of Pitt, and along with Canning he entered heart and soul into the defence of his government, and contributed freely to the pages of the Anti-Jacobin, edited by Gifford. He contributed, in collaboration with Canning, "The Loves of the Triangles," a clever parody of Darwin's "Loves of the Plants," "The Needy KnifeGrinder" and "The Rovers." On Canning's removal to the board of trade in 1799 he succeeded him as under-secretary of state; in October 1800 he was appointed envoy extraordinary and plenipotentiary to Lisbon; and in September 1802 he was transferred to Madrid, where he remained for two years. He was recalled on account of a personal disagreement he had with the duke of Alcudia, but the ministry showed its approval of his action by a pension of £1700 a year. He was made a member of the privy council in 1805; in 1807 he was appointed plenipotentiary at Berlin, but the mission was abandoned, and Frere was again sent to Spain in 1808 as plenipotentiary to the Central Junta. The condition of Spain rendered his position a very

responsible and difficult one. When Napoleon began to advance on Madrid it became a matter of supreme importance to decide whether Sir John Moore, who was then in the north of Spain, should endeavour to anticipate the occupation of the capital or merely make good his retreat, and if he did retreat whether he should do so by Portgual or by Galicia. Frere was strongly of opinion that the bolder was the better course, and he urged his views on Sir John Moore with an urgent and fearless persistency that on one occasion at least overstepped the limits of his commission. After the disastrous retreat to Corunna, the public accused Frere of having by his advice endangered the British army, and though no direct censure was passed upon his conduct by the government, he was recalled, and the marquess of Wellesley was appointed in his place.

Thus ended Frere's public life. He afterwards refused to undertake an embassy to St Petersburg, and twice declined the honour of a peerage. In 1816 he married Elizabeth Jemima, dowager countess of Erroll, and in 1820, on account of her failing health, he went with her to the Mediterranean. There he finally settled in Malta, and though he afterwards visited England more than once, the rest of his life was for the most part spent in the island of his choice. In quiet retirement he devoted himself to literature, studied his favourite Greek authors, and taught himself Hebrew and Maltese. His hospitality was well known to many an English guest, and his charities and courtesies endeared him to his Maltese neighbours. He died at the Pietà Valetta on the 7th of January 1846. Frere's literary reputation now rests entirely upon his spirited verse translations of Aristophanes, which remain in many ways unrivalled. The principles according to which he conducted his task were elucidated in an article on Mitchell's Aristophanes, which he contributed to The Quarterly Review, vol. xxiii. The translations of The Acharnians, The Knights, The Birds, and The Frogs were privately printed, and were first brought into general notice by Sir G. Cornewall Lewis in the Classical Museum for 1847. They were followed some time after by Theognis Restitulus, or the personal history of the poet Theognis, reduced from an analysis of his existing fragments. In 1817 he published a mock-heroic Arthurian poem entitled Prospectus and Specimen of an intended National Work, by William and Robert Whistlecraft, of Stowmarket in Suffolk, Harness and Collar Makers, intended to comprise the most interesting particulars relating to King Arthur and his Round Table. William Tennant in Anster Fair had used the oltava rima as a vehicle for semi-burlesque poetry five years earlier, but Frere's experiment is interesting because Byron borrowed from it the measure that he brought to perfection in Don Juan.

Frere's complete works were published in 1871, with a memoir by his nephews, W. E. and Sir Bartle Frere, and reached a second edition in 1874. Compare also Gabrielle Festing, J. H. Frere and his Friends (1899).

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FRÈRE, PIERRE ÉDOUARD (1819-1886), French painter, studied under Delaroche, entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1836 and exhibited first at the Salon in 1843. The marked sentimental tendency of his art makes us wonder at Ruskin's enthusiastic eulogy which finds in Frère's work the depth of Wordsworth, the grace of Reynolds, and the holiness of Angelico." What we can admire in his work is his accomplished craftsmanship and the intimacy and tender homeliness of his conception. Among his chief works are the two paintings, "Going to School and "Coming from School," "The Little Glutton" (his first exhibited picture) and " L'Exercice" (Mr Astor's collection) A journey to Egypt in 1860 resulted in a small series of Orientalist subjects, but the majority of Frère's paintings deal with the life of the kitchen, the workshop, the dwellings of the humble, and mainly with the pleasures and little troubles of the young, which the artist brings before us with humour and sympathy. He was one of the most popular painters of domestic genre in the middle of the 19th century.

FRÈRE-ORBAN, HUBERT JOSEPH WALTHER (1812-1896), Belgian statesman, was born at Liége on the 24th of April 1812. His family name was Frère, to which on his marriage he added his wife's name of Orban. After studying law in Paris, he

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