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ît; there are also lines from Fribourg to Morat and to Estavayer, I while from Romont (on the main line) a line runs to Bulle, and in 1904 was extended to Gessenay or Saanen near the head of the Sarine or Saane valley. The population of the canton amounted in 1900 to 127,951 souls, of whom 108,440 were Romanists, 19,305 Protestants, and 167 Jews. The canton is on the linguistic frontier in Switzerland, the line of division running nearly due north and south through it, and even right through its capital. In 1900 there were 78,353 French-speaking inhabitants, and 38,738 German-speaking, the latter being found chiefly in the north-western (Morat region) and north-eastern (Singine valley) portions, as well as in the upper valley of the Jogne or Jaun in the south-east. Besides the capital, Fribourg (q.v.), the only towns of any importance are Bulle (3330 inhabitants), Châtel St Denis (2509 inhabitants), Morat (q.v.) or Murten (2263 inhabitants), Romont (2110 inhabitants), and Estavayer le Lac or Stäffis am See (1636 inhabitants).

striking appearance. One of the most conspicuous buildings in the town is the college of St Michael, while in front of the 16th century town hall is an ancient lime tree stated (but this is very doubtful) to have been planted on the day of the victory of Morat (June 22, 1476). In the Lycée is the Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts, wherein, besides many interesting objects, is the collection of paintings and statuary bequeathed to the town in 1879 by Duchess Adela Colonna (a member of the d'Affry family of Fribourg), by whom many were executed under the name of "Marcello." The deep ravine of the Sarine is crossed by a very fine suspension bridge, constructed 1832-1834 by M. Chaley, of Lyons, which is 167 ft. above the Sarine, has a span of 808 ft., and consists of 6 huge cables composed of 3294 strands. A loftier suspension bridge is thrown over the Gotteron stream just before it joins the Sarine: it is 590 ft. long and 246 ft. in height, and was built in 1840. About 3 m. north of the town is the great railway viaduct or girder bridge of Grandfey, constructed in 1862 (1092 ft. in length, 249 ft. high) at a cost of 2 million francs. Immediately above the town a vast dam (591 ft. long) was constructed across the Sarine by the engineer Ritter in 1870-1872, the fall thus obtained yielding a waterpower of 2600 to 4000 horse-power, and forming a sheet of water known as the Lac de Pérolles. A motive force of 600 horsepower, secured by turbines in the stream, is conveyed to the plateau of Pérolles by "telodynamic" cables of 2510 ft. in length, for whose passage a tunnel has been pierced in the rock. On the Pérolles plateau is the International Catholic University founded in 1889.

The canton is pre-eminently a pastoral and agricultural region, tobacco, cheese and timber being its chief products. Its industries are comparatively few: straw-plaiting, watch-| making (Semsales), paper-making (Marly), lime-kilns, and, above all, the huge Cailler chocolate factory at Broc. It forms part of the diocese of Lausanne and Geneva, the bishop living since 1663 at Fribourg. It is a stronghold of the Romanists, and still contains many monasteries and nunneries, such as the Carthusian monks at Valsainte, and the Cistercian nuns at La Fille Dieu and at Maigrauge. The canton is divided into 7 administrative districts, and contains 283 communes. It sends 2 members (named by the cantonal legislature) to the Federal Ständerath, History. In 1178 the foundation of the town (meant to hold and 6 members to the Federal Nationalrath. The cantonal in check the turbulent nobles of the neighbourhood) was comconstitution has scarcely been altered since 1857, and is remark-pleted by Berchthold IV., duke of Zähringen, whose father Conrad able as containing none of the modern devices (referendum, had founded Freiburg in Breisgau in 1120, and whose son, initiative, proportional representation) save the right of "initia- Berchthold V., was to found Bern in 1191. The spot was chosen tive" enjoyed by 6000 citizens to claim the revision of the for purposes of military defence, and was situated in the Uechtcantonal constitution. The executive council of 7 members is land or waste land between Alamannian and Burgundian named for 5 years by the cantonal legislature, which consists territory. He granted it many privileges, modelled on the of members (holding office for 5 years) elected in the proportion charters of Cologne and of Freiburg in Breisgau, though the oldest of one to every 1200 (or fraction over 800) of the population. existing charter of the town dates from 1249. On the extinction (W. A. B. C.) of the male line of the Zähringen dynasty, in 1218, their lands FRIBOURG [Ger. Freiburg), the capital of the Swiss canton passed to- Anna, the sister of the last duke and wife of Count of that name. It is built almost entirely on the left bank of the Ulrich of Kyburg. That house kept Fribourg till it too became Sarine, the oldest bit (the Bourg) of the town being just above extinct, in 1264, in the male line. Anna, the heiress, married the river bank, flanked by the Neuveville and Auge quarters, about 1273 Eberhard, count of Habsburg-Laufenburg, who sold these last (with the Planche quarter on the right bank of the Fribourg in 1277 for 3000 marks to his cousin Rudolf, the head river) forming the Ville Basse. On the steeply rising ground of the house of Habsburg as well as emperor. The town had to to the west of the Bourg is the Quartier des Places, beyond fight many a hard battle for its existence against Bern and the which, to the west and south-west, is the still newer Pérolles count of Savoy, especially between 1448 and 1452. Abandoned quarter, where are the railway station and the new University; by the Habsburgs, and desirous of escaping from the increasing all these (with the Bourg) constituting the Ville Haute. In power of Bern, Fribourg in 1452 finally submitted to the count 1900 the population of the town was 15,794, of whom 13,270 of Savoy, to whom it had become indebted for vast sums of money. were Romanists and 109 Jews, while 9701 were French-speaking, Yet, despite all its difficulties, it was in the first half of the 15th and 5595 German-speaking, these last being mainly in the Ville century that Fribourg exported much leather and cloth to France, Basse. Its linguistic history is curious. Founded as a German Italy and Venice, as many as 10,000 to 20,000 bales of cloth being town, the French tongue became the official language during the stamped with the seal of the town. When Yolande, dowager greater part of the 14th and 15th centuries, but when it joined duchess of Savoy, entered into an alliance with Charles the Bold, the Swiss Confederation in 1481 the German influence came to duke of Burgundy, Fribourg joined Bern, and helped to gain the the fore, and German was the official language from 1483 to 1798, victories of Grandson and of Morat (1476). becoming thus associated with the rule of the patricians. From 1798 to 1814, and again from 1830 onwards, French prevailed, as at present, though the new University is a centre of German influence.

Fribourg is on the main line of railway from Bern (20 m.) to Lausanne (41 m.). The principal building in the town is the collegiate church of St Nicholas, of which the nave dates from the 13th-14th centuries, while the choir was rebuilt in the 17th century. It is a fine building, remarkable in itself, as well as for its lofty, late 15th century, bell-tower (249 ft. high), with a fine peal of bells; its famous organ was built between 1824 and 1834 by Aloys Mooser (a native of the town), has 7800 pipes, and is played daily in summer for the edification of tourists. The numerous monasteries in and around the town, its oldfashioned aspect, its steep and narrow streets, give it a most

In 1477 the town was finally freed from the rule of Savoy, while in 1481 (with Soleure) it became a member of the Swiss Confederation, largely, it is said, through the influence of the holy man, Bruder Klaus (Niklaus von der Flüc). In 1475 the town had taken Illens and Arconciel from Savoy, and in 1536 won from Vaud much territory, including Romont, Rue, Châtel St Denis, Estavayer, St Aubin (by these two conquests its dominion reached the Lake of Neuchâtel), as well as Vuissens and Surpierre, which still form outlying portions (physically within the canton of Vaud) of its territory, while in 1537 it took Bulle from the bishop of Lausanne. In 1502-1504 the lordship of Bellegarde or Jaun was bought, while in 1555 it acquired (jointly with Bern) the lands of the last count of the Gruyère, and thus obtained the rich district of that name. From 1475 it ruled (with Bern) the bailiwicks of Morat, Grandson, Orbe and

FRICTION

Echallens, just taken from Savoy, but in 1798 Morat was incor- | A upon B, or to move the body B itself, according to the frictional porated with (finally annexed in 1814) the canton of Fribourg, conditions. In the absence of friction it would simply cause A the other bailiwicks being then given to the canton of Léman (later of Vaud). In the 16th century the original democratic government gradually gave place to the oligarchy of the patrician families. Though this government caused much discontent it continued till it was overthrown on the French occupation of 1798. From 1803 (Act of Mediation) to 1814, Fribourg was one of the six cantons of the Swiss Confederation. But, on the fall of the new régime, in 1814, the old patrician rule was partly restored, as 108 of the 144 seats in the cantonal legislature were assigned to members of the patrician families. In 1831 the Radicals gained the power and secured the adoption of a more liberal constitution. In 1846 Fribourg (where the Conservatives had regained power in 1837) joined the Sonderbund and, in 1847, saw the Federal troops before its walls, and had to surrender to them. The Radicals now came back to power, and again revised the cantonal constitution in a liberal sense. party made several attempts to recover their supremacy, but The Catholic and Conservative their chiefs were driven into exile. In 1856 the Conservatives regained the upper hand at the general cantonal election, secured the adoption in 1857 of a new cantonal constitution, and have ever since maintained their rule, which some dub "clerical," while others describe it as anti-radical."

A slide on B. The friction is the resistance offered by the surface to slide on B, so that we may call it an effort tending to make of B to any such motion. But the value of this resistance is not in any way a function of the effort itself,-it depends chiefly upon the pressure normal to the surfaces and the nature of the effort. If less, A slides over B, the rate of motion being determined by the excess of the effort over the resistance (friction). surfaces. It may therefore be either less or greater than the But if the latter be greater no sliding can occur, i.c. A cannot, under the action of the supposed force, move upon B. The effort between the surfaces exists, however, exactly as before,-and it must now tend to cause the motion of B. But the body B is fixed, or, in other words, we suppose its resistance to motion greater than any effort which can tend to move it, hence no motion takes place. It must be specially noticed, however, that it is not the friction between A and B that has prevented which keeps B stationary, whatever that may be, which has motion, this only prevented A moving on B,-it is the force finally prevented any motion taking place. This can be easily seen. Suppose B not to be fixed, but to be capable of moving against some third body C (which might, e.g., contain cylindrical bearings, if B were a drum with its shaft), itself fixed,-and be the only resistance to B's motion. Then if this be less than the effort of A upon B, as it of course may be, this effort will cause further, suppose the frictional resistance between B and C to the motion of B. Thus friction causes motion, for had there the latter body would have remained stationary, and A only would have moved. In the case supposed, therefore, the friction been no frictional resistance between the surfaces of A and of B, between A and B is a necessary condition of B receiving any motion from the external force applied to A.

AUTHORITIES.-Archives de la Société d'histoire du Canton de F., from 1850; F. Buomberger, Bevölkerungs- u. Vermögensstatistik in d. Stadt u. Landschaft F. um die Mitte d. 15ten Jahrhunderts (Bern, 1900); A. Daguet, Histoire de la ville et de la seigneurie de F., to 1481 (Fribourg, 1889); A. Dellion, Dictionnaire historique et statistique des paroisses catholiques du C. de F. (12 vols., Fribourg, 1884-1903); Freiburger Geschichtsblätter, from 1894; Fribourg artistique (fine plates), from 1890; E. Heyck, Geschichte der Herzoge von Zahringen (Freiburg i. Br., 1891); F. Kuenlin, Der K. Freiburg (St Gall and Bern, 1834); Mémorial de F. (6 vols., 1854-1859); Recueil diplomatique du Cant. de F. (original documents) (8 vols., Fribourg, 1839-1877); F E. Welti, Beiträge zur Geschichte des älteren Stadtrechtes von Freiburg im Uechtland (Bern, 1908); J. Zemp, L'Art de la ville de Fribourg au moyen âge (Fribourg, 1905): Zimmerli, Die deutsch-französische Sprachgrenze in d. Schweiz (Basel and Geneva, 1895), vol. ii,, pp. 72 seq.; Les Alpes fribour-wards confirmed by A. J. Morin (1830-1834), have been found to geoises (Lausanne, 1908).

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Without entering here on the mathematical treatment of out which have been arrived at as the results of experiment. the subject of friction, some general conclusions may be pointed The "laws" first enunciated by C. A. Coulomb (1781), and after

and at the velocities most commonly occurring. Assuming the correctness of these, friction is generally measured in terms it by a "coefficient of friction" depending on the material of simply of the total pressure between the surfaces, by multiplying the surfaces and their state as to smoothness and lubrication. But beyond certain limits the "laws" stated are certainly incorrect, and are to be regarded as mere practical rules, of extensive application certainly, but without any pretension to be looked at as really general laws. Both at very high and very low pressures the coefficient of friction is affected by the intensity of pressure, and, just as with velocity, it can only be regarded as independent of the intensity and proportional simply to the total load within more or less definite limits.

FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub), in physical and mechani- tion is proportional to the normal pressure between the surfaces (W. A. B. C.) hold good within very wide limits. These are: (1) that the friccal science, the term given to the resistance which every material of contact, and therefore independent of the area of those surfaces, surface presents to the sliding of any other such surface upon it. and (2) that it is independent of the velocity with which the This resistance is due to the roughness of the surfaces; the surfaces slide one on the other. For many practical purposes minute projections upon each enter more or less into the minute these statements are sufficiently accurate, and they do in fact depressions on the other, and when motion occurs these rough-sensibly represent the results of experiment for the pressures nesses must either be worn off, or continually lifted out of the hollows into which they have fallen, or both, the resistance to motion being in either case quite perceptible and measurable. Friction is preferably spoken of as "resistance" rather than force," ," for a reason exactly the same as that which induces us to treat stress rather as molecular resistance (to change of form) than as force, and which may be stated thus: although friction can be utilized as a moving force at will, and is continually so used, yet it cannot be a primary moving force; it can transmit or modify motion already existing, but cannot in the first instance cause it. For this some external force, not friction, is required. The analogy with stress appears complete; the motion of the "driving link" of a machine is communicated to all the other parts, modified or unchanged as the case may be, by the stresses in those parts; but the actual setting in motion of the driving link itself cannot come about by stress, but must have for its production force obtained directly from the expenditure of some form of energy. It is important, however, that the use of the term "resistance " should not be allowed to mislead. Friction resists the motion of one surface upon another, but it may and frequently does confer the motion of the one upon the other, and in this way causes, instead of resists, the motion of the latter. This may be made more clear, perhaps, by an illustration. Suppose we have a leather strap A passing over a fixed cylindrical drum B, and let a pulling force or effort be applied to the strap. The force applied to A can act on B only at the surfaces of contact between them. There it becomes an effort tending either to move

to be set in motion was in many cases much greater than the Coulomb pointed out long ago that the resistance of a body resistance which it offered to continued motion; and since his time writers have always distinguished the "friction of rest," friction. He showed also that the value of the former depended or static friction, from the "friction of motion," or kinetic often both upon the intensity of the pressure and upon the length of time during which contact had lasted, both of which facts quite agree with what we should expect from our knowledge of the physical nature, already mentioned, of the causes of friction. It seems not unreasonable to expect that the influence of time upon friction should show itself in a comparison of very slow with very rapid motion, as well as in a comparison of starting (i.e. motion after a long time of rest) with continued

motion. That the friction at the higher velocities occurring in | alogy and organic chemistry. In the former he was one of the engineering practice is much less than at common velocities leading workers, in collaboration from 1879 to 1887 with Emile has been shown by several modern experiments, such as those Edmond Sarasin (1843-1890), at the formation of minerals by of Sir Douglas. Galton (see Report Bril. Assoc., 1878, and Proc. artificial means, particularly in the wet way with the aid of heat Inst. Mech. Eng., 1878, 1879) on the friction between brake-blocks and pressure, and he succeeded in reproducing a large number and wheels, and between wheels and rails. But no increase in of the natural compounds. In 1893, as the result of an attempt the coefficient of friction had been detected at slow speeds, to make diamond by the action of sulphur on highly carburetted until the experiments of Prof. Fleeming Jenkin (Phil. Trans., cast iron at 450°-500° C. be obtained a black powder too small in 1877, pt. 2) showed conclusively that at extremely low velocities quantity to be analysed but hard enough to scratch corundum. (the lowest measured was about 0002 ft. per second) there is a He also devoted much attention to the pyroelectric phenomena sensible increase of frictional resistance in many cases, most of crystals, which served as the theme of one of the two memoirs notably in those in which there is the most marked difference he presented for the degree of D.Sc. in 1869, and to the deterbetween the friction of rest and that of motion. These experi- mination of crystallographic constants. In organic chemistry, ments distinctly point to the conclusion, although without his study of the ketones and aldehydes, begun in 1857, provided absolutely proving it, that in such cases the coefficient of kinetic him with the subject of his other doctoral thesis. In 1862 he friction gradually increases as the velocity becomes extremely prepared secondary propyl alcohol, and in 1863, with James small, and passes without discontinuity into that of static | Mason Crafts (b. 1839), for many years a professor at the Massafriction. (A. B. W. K.; W. E. D.) chusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, he obtained various organometallic compounds of silicon. A few years later further work, with Albert Ladenburg, on the same element yielded silicochloroform and led to a demonstration of the close analogy existing between the behaviour in combination of silicon and carbon. In 1871, with R. D. da Silva (b. 1837) he synthesized glycerin, starting from propylene. In 1877, with Crafts, he made the first publication of the fruitful and widely used method for synthesizing benzene homologues now generally known as the " Friedel and Crafts reaction." It was based on an accidental observation of the action of metallic aluminium on amyl chloride, and consists in bringing together a hydrocarbon and an organic chloride in presence of aluminium chloride, when the residues of the two compounds unite to form a more complex body. Friedel was associated with Wurtz in editing the latter's Dictionnaire de chimie, and undertook the supervision of the supplements issued after 1884. He was the chief founder of the Revue générale de chimie in 1899. His publications include a Notice sur la vie et les travaux de Wurtz (1885), Cours de chimie organique (1887) and Cours de minéralogie (1893). He acted as president of the International Congress held at Geneva in 1892 for revising the nomenclature of the fatty acid series.

FRIDAY (A.S. frige-dag, fr. frige, gen. of frigu, love, or the goddess of love-the Norse Frigg,-the dag, day; cf. Icelandic frjádagr, O.H. Ger. friatag, frigalag, mod. Ger. Freitag), the sixth day of the week, corresponding to the Roman Dies Veneris, the French Vendredi and Italian Venerdi. The ill-luck associated with the day undoubtedly arose from its connexion with the Crucifixion; for the ancient Scandinavian peoples regarded it as the luckiest day of the week. By the Western and Eastern Churches the Fridays throughout the year, except when Christmas falls on that day, have ever been observed as days of fast in memory of the Passion. The special day on which the Passion of Christ is annually commemorated is known as Good Friday (q.v.). According to Mahommedan tradition, Friday, which is the Moslem Sabbath, was the day on which Adam was created, entered Paradise and was expelled, and it was the day of his repentance, the day of his death, and will be the Day of Resurrection.

FRIEDBERG, the name of two towns in Germany.

1. A small town in Upper Bavaria, with an old castle, known mainly as the scene of Moreau's victory of the 24th of August 1796 over the Austrians.

2. FRIEDBERG IN DER WETTERAU, in the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on an eminence above the Usa, 14 m. N. of Frankfort-on-Main, on the railway to Cassel and at the junction of a line to Hanau. Pop. (1905) 7702. It is a picturesque town, still surrounded by old walls and towers, and contains many medieval buildings, of which the beautiful Gothic town church (Evangelical) and the old castle are especially noteworthy. The grand-ducal palace has a beautiful garden. The schools include technical and agricultural academies and a teachers' seminary. It has manufactures of sugar, gloves and leather, and breweries. Friedberg is of Roman origin, but is first mentioned as a town in the 11th century. In 1211 it became a free imperial city, but in 1349 was pledged to the counts of Schwarzburg, and subsequently often changed hands, eventually in 1802 passing to Hesse-Darmstadt.

See a memorial lecture by J. M. Crafts, printed in the Journal of the London Chemical Society for 1900.

FRIEDLAND, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 103 m. N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 6229. Besides the old town, which is still surrounded by walls, it contains three suburbs. The principal industry is the manufacture of woollen and linen cloth. Friedland is chiefly remarkable for its old castle, which occupies an imposing situation on a small hill commanding the town. A round watch-tower is said to have been built on its site as early as 1014; and the present castle dates from the 13th century. It was several times besieged in the Thirty Years' and Seven Years' Wars. In 1622 it was purchased by Wallenstein, who took from it his title of duke of Friedland. After his death it was given to Count Mathias Gallas by Ferdinand II., and since 1757 it has belonged to the Count Clam Gallas. It was magnifi

See Dieffenbach, Geschichte der Stadt und Burg Friedberg (Darms., cently restored in 1868-1869. 1857).

FRIEDEL, CHARLES (1832-1899), French chemist and mineralogist, was born at Strassburg on the 12th of March 1832. After graduating at Strassburg University he spent a year in the counting-house of his father, a banker and merchant, and then in 1851 went to live in Paris with his maternal grandfather, Georges Louis Duvernoy (1777-1855), professor of natural history and, from 1850, of comparative anatomy, at the Collège de France. In 1854 he entered C. A. Wurtz's laboratory, and in 1856, at the instance of H. H. de Sénarmont (1808-1862), was appointed conservator of the mineralogical collections at the Ecole des Mines. In 1871 he began to lecture in place of A. L. O. L. Des Cloizeaux (1817-1897) at the Ecole Normale, and in 1876 he became professor of mineralogy at the Sorbonne, but on the death of Wurtz in 1884 he exchanged that position for the chair of organic chemistry. He died at Montauban on the 20th of April 1899. Friedel achieved distinction both in miner

FRIEDLAND, the name of seven towns in Germany. The most important now is that in the grand duchy of MecklenburgStrelitz, on the Mühlenteich, 35 m. N.E. of Strelitz by the railway to Neu-Brandenburg. Pop. 7000. It possesses a fine Gothic church and a gymnasium, and has manufactures of woollen and linen cloth, leather and tobacco. Friedland was founded in 1244 by the margraves John and Otto III. of Brandenburg.

FRIEDLAND, a town of Prussia, on the Alle, 27 m. S.E. of Königsberg (pop. 3000), famous as the scene of the battle fought between the French under Napoleon and the Russians commanded by General Bennigsen, on the 14th of June 1807 (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The Russians had on the 13th driven the French cavalry outposts from Friedland to the westward, and Bennigsen's main body began to occupy the town in the night. The army of Napoleon was set in motion for Friedland, but it was still dispersed on its various march routes, and the

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first stage of the engagement was thus, as usual, a pure "en- | to a standstill; Bennigsen's reserve cavalry charged with great counter-battle." The corps of Marshal Lannes as "general effect and drove him back in disorder. As at Eylau, the approach advanced guard" was first engaged, in the Sortlack Wood and in front of Posthenen (2.30-3 A.M. on the 14th). Both sides now used their cavalry freely to cover the formation of lines of battle, and a race between the rival squadrons for the possession of Heinrichsdorf resulted in favour of the French under Grouchy. Lannes in the meantime was fighting hard to hold Bennigsen, for Napoleon feared that the Russians meant to evade him again. Actually, by 6 A.M. Bennigsen had nearly 50,000 men across the river and forming up west of Friedland. His infantry, in two lines, with artillery, extended between the Heinrichsdorf-Friedland road and the upper bends of the river. Beyond the right of the infantry, cavalry and Cossacks extended the line to the wood N.E. of Heinrichsdorf, and small bodies of Cossacks penetrated even to Schwonau. The left wing also had some cavalry and, beyond the Alle, batteries were brought into action to cover it. A heavy and indecisive fire-fight raged in the Sortlack Wood between the Russian skirmishers and some of Lannes's troops. The head of Mortier's (French and Polish) corps appeared at golsas sablo adt do notter jenomes of bol bas motoroldscolli

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Heinrichsdorf and the Cossacks were driven out of Schwonau. Lannes held his own, and by noon, when Napoleon arrived, 40,000 French troops were on the scene of action. His orders were brief: Ney's corps was to take the line between Posthenen and the Sortlack Wood, Lannes closing on his left, to form the centre, Mortier at Heinrichsdorf the left wing. Victor and the Guard were placed in reserve behind Posthenen. Cavalry masses were collected at Heinrichsdorf. The main attack was to be delivered against the Russian left, which Napoleon saw at once to be cramped in the narrow tongue of land between the river and the Posthenen mill-stream. Three cavalry divisions were added to the general reserve. The course of the previous operations had been such that both armies had still large detachments out towards Königsberg. The afternoon was spent by the emperor in forming up the newly arrived masses, the deployment being covered by an artillery bombardment. At 5 o'clock all was ready, and Ney, preceded by a heavy artillery fire, rapidly carried the Sortlack Wood. The attack was pushed on toward the Alle. One of Ney's divisions (Marchand) drove part of the Russian left into the river at Sortlack. A furious charge of cavalry against Marchand's left was repulsed by the dragoon division of Latour-Maubourg. Soon the Russians were huddled together in the bends of the Alle, an easy target for the guns of ey and of the reserve. Ney's attack indeed came eventually

of night seemed to preclude a decisive success, but in June and on firm ground the old mobility of the French reasserted its value. The infantry division of Dupont advanced rapidly from Posthenen, the cavalry divisions drove back the Russian squadrons into the now congested masses of foot on the river bank, and finally the artillery general Sénarmont advanced a mass of guns to case-shot range. It was the first example of the terrible artillery preparations of modern warfare, and the Russian defence collapsed in a few minutes. Ney's exhausted infantry were able to pursue the broken regiments of Bennigsen's left into the streets of Friedland. Lannes and Mortier had all this time held the Russian centre and right on its ground, and their artillery had inflicted severe losses. When Friedland itself was seen to be on fire, the two marshals launched their infantry attack. Fresh French troops approached the battlefield. Dupont distinguished himself for the second time by fording the mill-stream and assailing the left flank of the Russian centre. This offered a stubborn resistance, but the French steadily. forced the line backwards, and the battle was soon over. The losses incurred by the Russians in retreating over the river at Friedland were very heavy, many soldiers being drowned. Farther north the still unbroken troops of the right wing drew off by the Allenburg road; the French cavalry of the left wing, though ordered to pursue, remaining, for some reason, inactive. The losses of the victors were reckoned at 12,100 out of 86,000, or 14%, those of the Russians at 10,000 out of 46,000, or 21% (Berndt, Zahl im Kriege).

FRIEDMANN, MEIR (1831-1908), Hungarian Jewish scholar. His editions of the Midrash are the standard texts. His chief editions were the Sifre (1864), the Mekhilla (1870), Pesigla Rabbathi (1880). At the time of his death he was editing the Sifra. Friedmann, while inspired with regard for tradition, dealt with the Rabbinic texts on modern scientific methods, and rendered conspicuous service to the critical investigation of the Midrash and to the history of early homilies, (I. A.)

FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836- ), German theologian, was born at Poxdorf in Upper Franconia on the 5th of May 1836, and was educated at Bamberg and at Munich, where in 1865 he was appointed professor extraordinary of theology. In 1869 he went to the Vatican Council as secretary to Cardinal Hohenlohe, and took an active part in opposing the dogma of papal infallibility, notably by supplying the opposition bishops with historical and theological material. He left Rome before the, council closed. "No German ecclesiastic of his age appears to have won for himself so unusual a repute as a theologian and to have held so important a position, as the trusted counsellor of the leading German cardinal at the Vatican Council. The path was fairly open before him to the highest advancement in the Church of Rome, yet he deliberately sacrificed all such hopes and placed himself in the van of a hard and doubtful struggle" (The Guardian, 1872, p. 1004). Sentence of excommunication was passed on Friedrich in April 1871, but he refused to acknowledge it and was upheld by the Bavarian government. He continued to perform ecclesiastical functions and maintained his academic position, becoming ordinary professor in 1872. In 1882 he was transferred to the philosophical faculty as professor of history. By this time he had to some extent withdrawn from the advanced position which he at first occupied in organizing the Old Catholic Church, for he was not in agreement with its abolition of enforced celibacy.

Friedrich was a prolific writer; among his chief works are: Johann Wessel (1862); Die Lehre des Johann Hus (1862); KirchenConcils geführt (1871): Zur Verteidigung meines Tagebuchs (1872); geschichte Deutschlands (1867-1869); Tagebuch während des Vatikan. Beiträge sur Kirchengeschichte des 18ten Jahrh. (1876); Geschichte des Vatikan. Konzils (1877-1886); Beiträge zur Gesch. des Jesuitenordens (1881); Das Papsitum (1892); I. v. Dollinger (1899-1901).

FRIEDRICH RODA, a summer resort in the duchy of SaxeCoburg-Gotha, Germany, at the north foot of the Thuringian Forest, 13 m. by rail S.W. from Gotha. Pop. 4500. It is surrounded by fir-clad bills and possesses numerous handsome

villa residences, a Kurhaus, sanatorium, &c. In the immediate | Friendly Societies Act 1908 the sum was £50), and for insurance neighbourhood is the beautiful ducal hunting seat of Reinhards- of a gross sum to £300 (previous to the act of 1908 the sum was brunn, built out of the ruins of the famous Benedictine monastery founded in 1085.

FRIEDRICHSDORF, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on the southern slope of the Taunus range, 3 m. N.E. from Homburg. Pop. 1300. It has a French Reformed church, a modern school, dyeworks, weaving mills, tanneries and tobacco manufactures. Friedrichsdorf was founded in 1687 by Huguenot refugees and the inhabitants still speak French. There is a monument to Philipp Reis (1834-1874), who in 1860 first constructed the telephone while a science master at the school.

FRIEDRICHSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, on the east shore of the Lake of Constance, at the junction of railways to Bretten and Lindau. Pop. 4600. It consists of the former imperial town of Buchhorn and the monastery and village of Hofen. The principal building is the palace, formerly the residence of the provosts of Hofen, and now the summer residence of the royal family. To the palace is attached the Evangelical parish church. The town has a hydropathic establishment and is a favourite tourist resort. Here are also the natural history and antiquarian collections of the Lake Constance Association. Buchhorn is mentioned (as Buachihorn or Puchihorn) in documents of 837 and was the seat of a powerful countship. The line of counts died out in 1089, and the place fell first to the Welfs and in 1191 to the Hohenstaufen. In 1275 it was made a free imperial city by King Rudolph I. In 1802 it lost this status and was assigned to Bavaria, and in 1810 to Württemberg. The monastery of Hofen was founded in 1050 as a convent of Benedictine nuns, but was changed in 1420 into a provostship of monks. It was suppressed in 1802 and in 1805 came to Württemberg. King Frederick I., who caused the harbour to be made, amalgamated Buchhorn and Hofen under the new name of Friedrichshafen. FRIEDRICHSRUH, a village in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, 15 m. S.E. of Hamburg, with a station on the main line of railway to Berlin. It gives its name to the famous country seat of the Bismarck family. The house is a plain unpretentious structure, but the park and estate, forming a portion of the famous Sachsenwald, are attractive. Close by, on a knoll, the Schneckenberg, stands the mausoleum in which the remains of Prince Otto von Bismarck were entombed on the 16th of March 1899.

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. These organizations, according to the comprehensive definition of the Friendly Societies Act 1896, which regulates such societies in Great Britain and Ireland, are" societies for the purpose of providing by voluntary subscriptions of the members thereof, with or without the aid of donations, for the relief or maintenance of the members, their husbands, wives, children, fathers, mothers, brothers or sisters, nephews or nieces, or wards being orphans, during sickness or other infirmity, whether bodily or mental, in old age, or in widowhood, or for the relief or maintenance of the orphan children of members during minority; for insuring money to be paid on the birth of a member's child, or on the death of a member, or for the funeral expenses of the husband, wife, or child of a member, or of the widow of a deceased member, or, as respects persons of the Jewish persuasion, for the payment of a sum of money during the period of confined mourning; for the relief or maintenance of the members when on travel in search of employment or when in distressed circumstances, or in case of shipwreck, or loss or damage of or to boats or nets; for the endowment of members or nominees of members at any age; for the insurance against fire to any amount not exceeding £15 of the tools or implements of the trade or calling of the members "-and are limited in their contracts for assurance of annuities to £52 (previous to the The word "friend" (O.E. freond, Ger. Freund, Dutch Vriend) is derived from an old Teutonic verb meaning to love. While used generally as the opposite to enemy, it is specially the term which connotes any degree, but particularly a high degree of personal goodwill. affection or regard, from which the element of sexual love is absent.

£200). They may be described in a more popular and condensed form of words as the mutual insurance societies of the poorer classes, by which they seek to aid each other in the emergencies arising from sickness and death and other causes of distress. A phrase in the first act for the encouragement and relief of friendly societies, passed in 1793, designating them "societies of good fellowship," indicates another useful phase of their operations. The origin of the friendly society is, probably in all countries, the burial club. It has been the policy of every religion, if indeed it is not a common instinct of humanity, to surround the disposal of a dead body with circumstances of pomp and expenditure,. often beyond the means of the surviving relatives. The appeal for help to friends and neighbours which necessarily follows is soon organized into a system of mutual aid, that falls in naturally with the religious ceremonies by which honour is done to the dead. Thus in China there are burial societies, termed "long-life loan companies," in almost all the towns and villages. Among the Greeks the pavol combined the religious with the provident element (see CHARITY AND CHARITIES). From the Greeks the Romans derived their fraternities of a similar kind. The Teutons in like manner had their gilds. Whether the English friendly society owes its origin in the higher degree to the Roman or the Teutonic influence can hardly be determined. The utility of providing by combination for the ritual expenditure upon burial having been ascertained, the next step to render mutual assistance in circumstances of distress generally-was an easy one, and we find it taken by the Greek pavo and by the English gilds. Another modification-that the societies should consist not so much of neighbours as of persons having the same occupation -soon arises; and this is the germ of our trade unions and our city companies in their original constitution. The interest, however, that these inquiries possess is mainly antiquarian. The legal definition of a friendly society quoted above points to an organization more complex than those of the ancient fraternities and gilds, and proceeding upon different principles. It may be that the one has grown out of the other. The common element of a provision for a contingent event by a joint contribu tion is in both; but the friendly society alone has attempted to define with precision what is the risk against which it intends to provide, and what should be the contributions of the members to meet that risk.

United Kingdom.-It would be curious to endeavour to trace how, after the suppression of the religious gilds in the 16th century, and the substitution of an organized system of relief by the poor law of Elizabeth for the more voluntary and casual means of relief that previously existed, the modern system of friendly societies grew up. The modern friendly society, particularly in rural districts, clings with fondness to its annual feast and procession to church, its procession of all the brethren on the occasion of the funeral of one of them, and other incidents which are almost obviously survivals of the customs of medieval gilds. The last recorded gild was in existence in 1628, and there are, records of friendly societies as early as 1634 and 1639. The connecting links, however, cannot be traced. With the exception of a society in the port of Borrowstounness on the Firth of Forth, no existing friendly society is known to be able to trace back its history beyond a date late in the 17th century, and no records remain of any that might have existed in the latter half of the 16th century or the greater part of the 17th. One founded in 1666 was extant in 1850, but it has since ceased to exist. This is not so surprising as it might appear. Documents which exist in manuscript only are much less likely to have been preserved since the invention of printing than they were before; and such would be the simple rules and records of any society that might have existed during this interval-if, indeed, many of them kept records at all. On the whole, it seems probable therefore that the friendly society is a lineal descendant of the ancient gild-the idea never having wholly died out, but having been kept up from generation to generation in a succession of small and scattered societies.

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