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to act as the banker of the Habsburgs, a connexion destined to |
bring fame and fortune to his house. Under the lead of Jakob,
who had been trained for business in Venice, the Fuggers were
interested in silver mines in Tirol and copper mines in Hungary,
while their trade in spices, wool and silk extended to almost
all parts of Europe. Their wealth enabled them to make large
loans to the German king, Maximilian I., who pledged to them
the county of Kirchberg, the lordship of Weissenhorn and other
lands, and bestowed various privileges upon them. Jakob
built the castle of Fuggerau in Tirol, and erected the Fuggerei
at Augsburg, a collection of 106 dwellings, which were let at low
rents to poor people and which still exist. Jakob Fugger and
his two nephews, Ulrich (d. 1525) and Hieronymus (d. 1536),
the sons of Ulrich, died without direct heirs, and the family was
continued by Georg's sons, Raimund (1489-1535) and Anton
(1493-1560), under whom the Fuggers attained the summit of
their wealth and influence.

Jakob Fugger's florins had contributed largely to the election of Charles V. to the imperial throne in 1519, and his nephews and heirs maintained close and friendly relations with the great emperor. In addition to lending him large sums of money, they farmed his valuable quicksilver mines at Almaden, his silver mines at Guadalcanal, the great estates of the military orders which had passed into his hands, and other parts of his revenue as king of Spain; receiving in return several tokens of the emperor's favour. In 1530 Raimund and Anton were granted the imperial dignity of counts of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn, and obtained full possession of these mortgaged properties; in 1534 they were given the right of coining money; and in 1541 received rights of jurisdiction over their lands. During the diet of Augsburg in 1530 Charles V. was the guest of Anton Fugger at his house in the Weinmarkt, and the story relates how the merchant astonished the emperor by lighting a fire of cinnamon with an imperial bond for money due to him. This incident forms the subject of a picture by Carl Becker which is in the National Gallery at Berlin. Continuing their mercantile career, the Fuggers brought the new world within the sphere of their operations, and also carried on an extensive and lucrative business in farming indulgences. Moreover, both brothers found time to acquire landed property, and were munificent patrons of literature and art. When Anton died he is said to have been worth 6,000,000 florins, besides a vast amount of property in Europe, Asia and America; and before this time the total wealth of the family had been estimated at 63,000,000 florins. The Fuggers were devotedly attached to the Roman Catholic Church, which benefited from their liberality. Jakob had been made a count palatine (Pfalzgraf) and had received other marks of favour from Pope Leo X., and several members of the family had entered the church; one, Raimund's son, Sigmund, becoming bishop of Regensburg.

Marcus was the author of a book on horse-breeding, Wie und wo man ein Gestül von guten edeln Kriegsrossen aufrichten soll (1578), and of a German translation of the Historia ecclesiastica of Nicephorus Callistus. He founded the Nordendorf branch of the family, which became extinct on the death of his grandson, Nicolaus, in 1676. Another grandson of Marcus was Franz | Fugger (1612-1664), who served under Wallenstein during the Thirty Years' War, and was afterwards governor of Ingolstadt. He was killed at the battle of St Gotthard on the 1st of August | 1664.

Johann Fugger had three sons, Christoph (d. 1615) and Marcus (d. 1614), who founded the families of Fugger-Glött and Fugger-Kirchheim respectively, and Jakob, bishop of Constance from 1604 until his death in 1626. Christoph's son, Otto Heinrich (1592-1644), was a soldier of some distinction and a knight of the order of the Golden Fleece. He was one of the most active of the Bavarian generals during the Thirty Years' War, and acted as governor of Augsburg, where his rule aroused much discontent. The family of Kirchheim died out in 1672. That of Glött was divided into several branches by the sons of Otto Heinrich and of his brother Johann Ernst (d. 1628). These lines, however, have gradually become extinct except the eldest line, represented in 1909 by Karl Ernst, Count Fugger of Glött (b. 1859). Anton Fugger's third son Jakob, the founder of the family of Wellenburg, had two sons who left issue, but in 1777 the possessions of this branch of the family were again united by Anselm Joseph (d. 1793), Count Fugger of Babenhausen. In 1803 Anselm's son, Anselm Maria (d. 1821), was made a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, the title of Prince Fugger of Babenhausen being borne by his direct descendant Karl (b. 1861). On the fall of the empire in 1806 the lands of the Fuggers, which were held directly of the empire, were mediatized under Bavaria and Württemberg. The heads of the three existing branches of the Fuggers are all hereditary members of the Bavarian Upper House.

Augsburg has many interesting mementoes of the Fuggers, including the family burial-chapel in the church of St Anna; the Fugger chapel in the church of St Ulrich and St Afra; the Fuggerhaus, still in the possession of one branch of the family; and a statue of Johann Jakob Fugger.

In 1593 a collection of portraits of the Fuggers, engraved by Dominique Custos of Antwerp, was issued at Augsburg. Editions panied by a genealogy in Latin, the latter by one in German. Another with 127 portraits appeared in 1618 and 1620, the former accomedition of this Pinacotheca Fuggerorum, published at Vienna in 1754. includes 139 portraits. See Chronik der Familie Fugger vom Jahre 1599, edited by C. Meyer (Munich, 1902); A. Geiger, Jakob Fugger, 1459-1525 (Regensburg, 1895); A. Schulte, Die Fugger in Rom, (Jena, 1896); K. Häbler, Die Geschichte der Fuggerschen Handlung 1495-1523 (Leipzig, 1904); R. Ehrenberg, Das Zeitalter der Fugger in Spanien (Weimar, 1897); A. Stauber, Das Haus Fugger (Augs burg, 1900); and M. Jansen, Die Anfänge der Fugger (Leipzig, 1907).

In addition to the bishop, three of Raimund Fugger's sons attained some degree of celebrity. Johann Jakob (1516-1575), FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS, a term applied in the United was the author of Wahrhaftigen Beschreibung des österreichischen States to the Statutes passed by Congress in 1793 and 1850 to und habsburgischen Nahmens, which was largely used by S. von provide for the return of negro slaves who escaped from one Bircken in his Spiegeider Ehren des Erzhauses Österreich (Nurem-state into another or into a public territory. A fugitive slave berg, 1668), and of a Geheim Ernbuch des Fuggerischen Geschlechtes. clause was inserted in the Articles of Confederation of the New He was also a patron of art, and a distinguished counsellor of England Confederation of 1643, providing for the return of the Duke Albert IV. of Bavaria. After the death of his son Kon-fugitive upon the certificate of one magistrate in the jurisdiction stantin, in 1627, this branch of the family was divided into three lines, which became extinct in 1738, 1795 and 1846 respectively. Another of Raimund's sons was Ulrich (1526-1584), who, after serving Pope Paul III. at Rome, became a Protestant. Hated on this account by the other members of his family, he took refuge in the Rhenish Palatinate; greatly interested in the Greek classics, he occupied himself in collecting valuable manuscripts, which he bequeathed to the university of Heidelberg. Raimund's other son was Georg (d. 1579), who inherited the countships of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn, and founded a branch of the family which still exists, its present head being Georg, Count Fugger of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn (b. 1850).

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out of which the said servant fled-no trial by jury being provided for. This seems to have been the only instance of an intercolonial provision for the return of fugitive slaves; there were, indeed, not infrequent escapes by slaves from one colony to another, but it was not until after the growth of anti-slavery sentiment and the acquisition of western territory, that it became necessary to adopt a uniform method for the return of fugitive slaves. Such provision was made in the Ordinance of 1787 (for the Northwest Territory), which in Article VI. provided that in the case of " any person escaping into the same [the Northwest Territory] from whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original states, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the person claiming his or her labor or service as aforesaid." An agreement of the sort was

necessary to persuade the slave-holding states to union, and in the Federal Constitution, Article IV., Section II., it is provided that no person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labour may be due."

The first specific legislation on the subject was enacted on the 12th of February 1793, and like the Ordinance for the Northwest Territory and the section of the Constitution quoted above, did not contain the word "slave "; by its provisions any Federal district or circuit judge or any state magistrate was authorized to decide finally and without a jury trial the status of an alleged fugitive. The measure soon met with strong opposition in the northern states, and Personal Liberty Laws were passed to hamper officials in the execution of the law; Indiana in 1824 and Connecticut in 1828 providing jury trial for fugitives who appealed from an original decision against them. In 1840 New York and Vermont extended the right of trial by jury to fugitives and provided them with attorneys. As early as the first decade of the 19th century individual dissatisfaction with the law of 1793 had taken the form of systematic assistance rendered to negroes escaping from the South to Canada or New England-the so-called Underground Railroad." The decision of the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Prigg v. Pennsylvania in 1842 (16 Peters 539), that state authorities could not be forced to act in fugitive slave cases, but that national authorities must carry out the national law, was followed by legislation in Massachusetts (1843), Vermont (1843), Pennsylvania (1847) and Rhode Island (1848), forbidding state officials to help enforce the law and refusing the use of state gaols for fugitive slaves. The demand from the South for more effective Federal legislation was voiced in the second fugitive slave law, drafted by Senator J. M. Mason of Virginia, and enacted on the 18th of September 1850 as a part of the Compromise Measures of that year. Special commissioners were to have concurrent jurisdiction with the U.S. circuit and district courts and the | inferior courts of Territories in enforcing the law; fugitives could not testify in their own behalf; no trial by jury was provided;

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The precise amount of organization in the Underground Railroad cannot be definitely ascertained because of the exaggerated use of the figure of railroading in the documents of the "presidents" of the road, Robert Purvis and Levi Coffin, and of its many ductors," and their discussion of the "packages" and "freight" shipped by them. The system reached from Kentucky and Virginia across Ohio, and from Maryland across Pennsylvania and New York, to New England and Canada, and as early as 1817 a group of anti-slavery men in southern Ohio had helped to Canada as many as 1000 slaves. The Quakers of Pennsylvania possibly began the work of the mysterious Underground Railroad; the best known of them was Thomas Garrett (1789-1871), a native of Pennsylvania, who, in 1822, removed to Wilmington, Delaware, where he was convicted in 1848 on four counts under the Fugitive Slave Law and was fined $8000; he is said to have helped 2700 slaves to freedom. The most picturesque figure of the Underground Railroad was Harriet Tubman (c. 1820), called by her friend, John Brown, "General" Tubman, and by her fellow negroes Moses." She made about a score of trips into the South, bringing out with her 300 negroes altogether. At one time a reward of $40,000 was offered for her capture. She was a mystic, with remarkable clairvoyant powers, and did great service as a nurse, a spy and a scout in the Civil War. Levi Coffin (1798-1877), a native of North Carolina (whose cousin, Vestal Coffin, had established before 1819 a "station" of the Underground near what is now Guilford College, North Carolina), in 1826 settled in Wayne County, Ohio; his home at New Garden (now Fountain City) was the meeting point of three "lines from Kentucky; and in 1847 he removed to Cincinnati, where his labours in bringing slaves out of the South were even more successful. It has been argued that the Underground Railroad delayed the final decision of the slavery question, inasmuch as it was a "safety valve"; for, without it, the more intelligent and capable of the negro slaves would, it is asserted, have become the leaders of insurrections in the South, and would not have been removed from the places where they could have done most damage. Consult William Still, The Underground Railroad (Philadelphia, 1872), a collection of anecdotes by a negro agent of the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, and of the Philadelphia branch of the Railroad; and the important and scholarly work of Wilbur H. Siebert, The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom (New York, 1898).

penalties were imposed upon marshals who refused to enforce the law or from whom a fugitive should escape, and upon individuals who aided negroes to escape; the marshal might raise a posse comitatus; a fee of $10 was paid to the commissioner when his decision favoured the claimant and only $5 when it favoured the fugitive; and both the fact of the escape and the identity of the fugitive were to be determined on purely ex parte testimony. The severity of this measure led to gross abuses and defeated its purpose; the number of abolitionists increased, the operations of the Underground Railroad became more efficient, and new Personal Liberty Laws were enacted in Vermont (1850), Connecticut (1854), Rhode Island (1854), Massachusetts (1855), Michigan (1855), Maine (1855 and 1857), Kansas (1858) and Wisconsin (1858). These Personal Liberty Laws forbade justices and judges to take cognizance of claims, extended the habeas corpus act and the privilege of jury trial to fugitives, and punished false testimony severely. The supreme court of Wisconsin went so far (1859) as to declare the Fugitive Slave Law unconstitutional: These state laws were one of the grievances officially referred to by South Carolina (in Dec. 1860) as justifying her secession from the Union. Attempts to carry into effect the law of 1850 aroused much bitterness. The arrests of Sims and of Shadrach in Boston in 1851; of "Jerry" M'Henry, in Syracuse, New York, in the same year; of Anthony Burns in 1854, in Boston; and of the two Garner families in 1856, in Cincinnati, with other cases arising under the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, probably had as much to do with bringing on the Civil War as did the controversy over slavery in the Territories. With the beginning of the Civil War the legal status of the slave was changed by his master's being in arms. General B. F. Butler, in May 1861, declared negro slaves contraband of war. A confiscation bill was passed in August 1861 discharging from his service or labour any slave employed in aiding or promoting any insurrection against the government of the United States. By an act of the 17th of July 1862 any slave of a disloyal master who was in territory occupied by northern troops was declared ipso facto free. But for some time the Fugitive Slave Law was considered still to hold in the case of fugitives from masters in the border states who were loyal to the Union government, and it was not until the 28th of June 1864 that the Act of 1850 was repealed.

See J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850, vols. i. and ii. (New York, 1893); and M. G. M'Dougall, Fugitive Slaves, 1619-1865 (Boston, 1891).

FUGLEMAN (from the Ger. Flügelmann, the man on the Flügel or wing), properly a military term for a soldier who is selected to act as "guide," and posted generally on the flanks with the duty of directing the march in the required line, or of giving the time, &c., to the remainder of the unit, which conforms to his movements, in any military exercise. The word is then applied to a ringleader or one who takes the lead in any movement or concerted movement.

FUGUE (Lat. fuga, flight), in music, the mutual "pursuit " of voices or parts. It was, up to the end of the 16th century, if not later, the name applied to two art-forms. (A) Fuga ligata was the exact reproduction by one or more voices of the statement of a leading part. The reproducing voice (comes) was seldom if ever written out, for all differences between it and the dux were rigidly systematic; e.g. it was an exact inversion, or exactly twice as slow, or to be sung backwards, &c. &c. Hence, a rule or canon was given, often in enigmatic form, by which the comes was deduced from the dux: and so the term canon became the appropriate name for the form itself, and is still retained. (B) A composition in which the canonic style was cultivated without canonic restriction was, in the 16th century, called fuga ricercata or simply a ricercare, a term which is still used by Bach as a title for the fugues in Das musikalische Opfer.

The whole conception of fugue, rightly understood, is one of the most important in music, and the reasons why some con. trapuntal compositions are called fugues, while others are not, are so trivial, technically as well as aesthetically, that we have

preferred to treat the subject separately under the general of Bach. Every word is a definition, both retrospective and heading of CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS, reserving only technical terms for definition here.

(i.) If in the beginning or "exposition" the material with which the opening voice accompanies the answer is faithfully reproduced as the accompaniment to subsequent entries of the subject, it is called a countersubject (see COUNTERPOINT, under sub-heading Double Counterpoint). Obviously the process may be carried further, the first countersubject going on to a second when the subject enters in the third part and so on. The term is also applied to new subjects appearing later in the fugue in combination (immediate or destined) with the original subject. Cherubini, holding the doctrine that a fugue cannot have more than one subject, insists on applying the term to the less prominent of the subjects of what are commonly called double fugues, i.e. fugues which begin with two parts and two subjects simultaneously, and so also with triple and quadruple fugues.

(ii.) Episodes are passages separating the entries of the subject.1 Episodes are usually developed from the material of the subject and countersubjects; they are very rarely independent, but then conspicuously so.

(iii.) Stretto, the overlapping of subject and answer, is a resource the possibilities of which may be exemplified by the setting of the words omnes generationes in Bach's Magnificat (see BACH). (iv.) The distinction between real and lonal fugue, which is still sometimes treated as a thing of great historical and technical importance, is really a mere detail resulting from the fact that a violent oscillation between the keys of tonic and dominant is no part of the function of a fugal exposition, so that the answer is (especially in its first notes and in points that tend to shift the key) not so much a transposition of the subject to the key of the dominant as an adaptation of it from the tonic part to the dominant part of the scale, or vice versa; in short, the answer is as far as possible on the dominant, not in the dominant. The modifications this principle produces in the answer (which have been happily described as resembling "fore-shortening") are the only distinctive marks of tonal fugue; and the text-books are half filled with the attempt to reduce them from matters of ear to rules of thumb, which rules, however, have the merit (unusual in those of the academic fugue) of being founded on observation of the practice of great masters. But the same principle as often as not produces answers that are exact transpositions of the subject; and so the only kind of real fugue (i.e. fugue with an exact answer) that could rightly be contrasted with tonal fugue would be that in which the answer ought to be tonal but is not. It must be admitted that tonal answers are rare in the modal music of the 16th century, though their melodic principles are of yet earlier date; still, though tonal fugue does not become usual until well on in the 17th century, the idea that it is a separate species is manifestly absurd, unless the term simply means" fugue in modern tonality or key," whatever the answer may be.

The term "answer " is usually reserved for those entries of the subject that are placed in what may be called the "complementary" position of the scale, whether they are "tonally modified or not. Thus the order of entries in the exposition of the first fugue of the Wohltemp. Klav. is subject, answer, answer, subject; a departure from the usual rule according to which subject and answer are strictly alternate in the exposition.

In conclusion we may remind the reader of the most accurate as well as the most vivid description ever given of the essentials of a fugue, in the famous lines in Paradise Lost, book xi.

"His volant touch,

Instinct through all proportions, low and high,
Fled and pursued transverse the resonant fugue."

It is hard to realize that this description of organ-music was written in no classical period of instrumental polyphony, but just half-way between the death of Frescobaldi and the birth An episode occurring during the exposition is sometimes called codetta, a distinction the uselessness of which at once appears on an analysis of Bach's 2nd fugue in the Wohltemp. Klav. (the term codetta is more correctly applied to notes filling in a gap between subject and its first answer, but such a gap is rare in good examples).

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prophetic; and in "transverse" we see all that Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley expresses in his popular distinction between the perpendicular or homophonic style in which harmony is built up in chords, and the "horizontal" or polyphonic style in which it is woven in threads of independent melody. (D. F. T.) FÜHRICH, JOSEPH VON (1800-1876), Austrian painter, was born at Kratzau in Bohemia on the 9th of February 1800. Deeply impressed as a boy by rude pictures adorning the wayside chapels of his native country, his first attempt at composition was a sketch of the Nativity for the festival of Christmas in his father's house. He lived to see the day when, becoming celebrated as a composer of scriptural episodes, his sacred subjects were transferred in numberless repetitions to the roadside churches of the Austrian state, where humble peasants thus learnt to admire modern art reviving the models of earlier ages. Führich has been fairly described as a “ Nazarenc," a romantic religious artist whose pencil did more than any other to restore the old spirit of Dürer and give new shape to countless incidents of the gospel and scriptural legends. Without the power of Cornelius or the grace of Overbeck, he composed with great skill, especially in outline. His mastery of distribution, form, movement and expression was considerable. In its peculiar way his drapery was perfectly cast. Essentially creative as a landscape draughtsman, he had still no feeling for colour; and when he produced monumental pictures he was not nearly so successful as when designing subjects for woodcuts. Führich's fame extended far beyond the walls of the Austrian capital, and his illustrations to Tieck's Genofeva, the Lord's Prayer, the Triumph of Christ, the Road to Bethlehem, the Succession of Christ according to Thomas à Kempis, the Prodigal Son, and the verses of the Psalter, became well known. His Prodigal Son, especially, is remarkable for the fancy with which the spirit of evil is embodied in a figure constantly recurring, and like that of Mephistopheles exhibiting temptation in a human yet demoniacal shape. Führich became a pupil at the Academy of Prague in 1816. His first inspiration was derived from the prints of Dürer and the Faust of Cornelius, and the first fruit of this turn of study was the Genofeva series. In 1826 he went to Rome, where he added three frescoes to those executed by Cornelius and Overbeck in the Palazzo Massimi. His subjects were taken from the life of Tasso, and are almost solitary examples of his talent in this class of composition. In 1831 he finished the Triumph of Christ now in the Raczynski palace at Berlin. In 1834 he was made custos and in 1841 professor of composition in the Academy of Vienna. After this he completed the monumental pictures of the church of St Nepomuk, and in 1854-1861 the vast series of wall paintings which cover the inside of the Lerchenfeld church at Vienna. In 1872 he was pensioned and made a knight of the order of Franz Joseph; 1875 is the date of his illustrations to the Psalms. He died on the 13th of March 1876. His autobiography was published in 1875, and a memoir by his son Lucas in 1886.

FUJI (Fuji-san, Fujiyama, Fusiyama), a celebrated mountain of Japan, standing W.S.W. of Tokyo, its base being about 70 m. by rail from that city. It rises to a height of 12,395 ft. and its southern slopes reach the shore of Suruga Bay. It is a cone of beautifully simple form, the more striking to view because it stands isolated; but its summit is not conical, being broken by a crater some 2000 ft. in diameter, for Fuji is a quiescent volcano. Small outbursts of steam are still to be observed at some points. An eruption is recorded so lately as the first decade of the 18th century. The mountain is the resort of great numbers of pilgrims (see also JAPAN).

FU-KIEN (formerly MIN), a south-eastern province of China, bounded N. by the province of Cheh-kiang, S. by that of Kwangtung, W. by that of Kiang-si and E. by the sea. It occupies an area of 53,480 sq. m. and its population is estimated at 20,000,000. The provincial capital is Fuchow Fu, and it is divided into eleven prefectures, besides that ruled over by the prefect of the capital city. Fu-kien is generally mountainous, being overspread by the Nan-shan ranges, which run a general course of N.E. and S.W.

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no political power in those countries. Their most southerly
emirate is Adamawa, the country on both sides of the upper
Benue. In this vast region of distribution the Fula populations
are most dense towards the west and north, most scattered
towards the east and south. Originally herdsmen in the western
and central Sudan, they extended their sway east of the Niger,
under the leadership of Othman Dan Fodio, during the early
years of the 19th century, and having subdued the Hausa states,
founded the empire of Sokoto with the vassal emirates of Kano,
| Gando, Nupe, Adamawa, &c.

The principal river is the Min, which is formed by the junction, | in Bornu, Bagirmi, Wadai and the upper Nile Valley,' but have in the neighbourhood of the city of Yen-p'ing Fu, of three rivers, namely, the Nui-si, which takes its rise in the mountains on the western frontier in the prefecture of Kien-ning Fu, the Fuh-tun Ki, the source of which is found in the district of Kwang-tsih in the north-west of the province, and the Ta-shi-ki (Shao Ki), which rises in the mountains in the western district of Ning-hwa. From Yen-p'ing Fu the river takes a south-easterly course, and after passing along the south face of the city of Fuchow Fu, empties itself into the sea about 30 m. below that town. Its upper course is narrow and rocky and abounds in rapids, but as it approaches Fuchow Fu the channel widens and the current becomes slow and even. Its depth is very irregular, and it is navigable only by native boats of a small class. Two other rivers flow into the sea near Amoy, neither of which, however, is navigable for any distance from its mouth owing to the shallows and rapids with which they abound. Thirty-five miles inland from Amoy stands the city of Chang Chow, famous for the bridge which there spans the Kin-lung river. This bridge is 800 ft. long, and consists of granite monoliths stretching from one abutment to another. The soil of the province is, as its name, "Happy Establishment," indicates, very productive, and the scenery is of a rich and varied character. Most of the hills are covered with verdure, and the less rugged are laid out in terraces. The principal products of the province are tea, of which the best kind is that known as Bohea, which takes its name, by a mispronunciation, from the Wu-e Mountains, in the prefecture of Kien-ning Fu, where it is grown; grains of various kinds, oranges, plantins, lichis, bamboo, ginger, gold, silver, lead, tin, iron, salt (both marine and rock), deers' horns, beeswax, sugar, fish, birds' nests, medicine, paper, cloth, timber, &c. Fu-kien has three open ports, Fuchow Fu opened in 1842, Amoy opened to trade in the same year and Funing. The latter port was only opened to foreign trade in 1898, but in 1904 it imported and exported goods to the value of £7668 and £278,160 respectively.

FUKUI, a town of Japan in the province of Echizen, Nippon, near the west coast, 20 m. N. by E. of Wakasa Bay. It lies in a volcanic district much exposed to earthquakes, and suffered severely during the disturbances of 1891-1892, when a chasm over 40 m. long was opened across the Neo valley from Fukui to Katabira. But Fukui subsequently revived, and is now in a flourishing condition, with several local industries, especially the manufacture of paper, and an increasing population exceeding 50,000. Fukui has railway communication. There are ruins of a castle of the Daimios of Echizen.

FUKUOKA, a town on the north-west coast of the island of Kiushiu, Japan, in the province of Chikuzen, 90 m. N.N.E. of Nagasaki by rail. Pop. about 72,000. With Hakata, on the opposite side of a small coast stream, it forms a large centre of population, with an increasing export trade and several local industries. Of these the most important is silk-weaving, and Hakata especially is noted for its durable silk fabrics. Fukuoka was formerly the residence of the powerful daimio of Chikuzen, and played a conspicuous part in the medieval history of Japan, the renowned temple of Yeiyas in the district was destroyed by fire during the revolution of 1868. There are several other places of this name in Japan, the most important being Fukuoka in the province of Mutsu, North Nippon, a railway station on the main line from Tokyo to Aimori Ura Bay. Pop. about 5000.

FULA (FULBE, FELLATAH OF PEULS), a numerous and powerful African people, spread over an immense region from Senegal nearly to Darfur. Strictly they have no country of their own, and nowhere form the whole of the population, though nearly always the dominant native race. They are most numerous in Upper Senegal and in the countries under French sway immediately south of Senegambia, notably Futa Jallon. Farther east they rule, subject to the control of the French, Segu and Massena, countries on both banks of the upper Niger, to the south-west of Timbuktu. The districts within the great bend of the Niger have a large Fula population. East of that river Sokoto and its tributary emirates are ruled by Fula princes. subject to the control of the British Nigerian administration. Fula are settled

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The question of the ethnic affinities of the Fula has given rise to an enormous amount of speculation, but the most reasonable theory is that they are a mixture of Berber and Negro. This is now the most generally accepted theory. Certainly there is no reason to connect them with the ancient Egyptians. In the district of Senegal known as Fuladugu or "Fula Land," where the purest types of the race are found, the people are of a reddish brown or light chestnut colour, with oval faces, ringlety or even smooth hair, never woolly, straight and even aquiline noses, delicately shaped lips and regular features quite differentiating them from the Negro type. Like most conquering races the Fula are, however, not of uniform physique, in many districts approximating to the local type. They nevertheless maintain throughout their widespread territory a certain national solidarity, thanks to common speech, traditions and usages. The ruling caste of the Fula differs widely in character from the herdsmen of the western Sudan. The latter are peaceable, inoffensive and abstemious. They are mainly monogamous, and by rigidly abstaining from foreign marriages have preserved racial purity. The ruling caste in Nigeria, on the other hand, despise their pastoral brethren, and through generations of polygamy with the conquered tribes have become more Negroid in type, black, burly and coarse featured. Love of luxury, pomp and finery is their chief characteristic. Taken as a whole, the Fula race is distinguished by great intelligence, frankness of disposition and strength of character. As soldiers they are renowned almost exclusively as cavalry; and the race has produced several leaders possessed of much strategical skill. Besides the ordinary Negro weapons, they use iron spears with leatherbound handles and swords. They are generally excellent rulers, stern but patient and just. The Nigerian emirs acquired, however, an evil reputation during the 19th century as slave raiders. They have long been devout Mahommedans, and mosques and schools exist in almost all their towns. Tradition says that of old every Fula boy and girl was a scholar; but during the decadence of their power towards the close of the 19th century education was not highly valued. Power seems to have somewhat spoilt this virile race, but such authorities as Sir Frederick Lugard believe them still capable of a great future.

The Fula language has as yet found no place in any African linguistic family. In its rudiments it is akin to the HamitoSemitic group. It possesses two grammatical genders, not masculine and feminine, but the human and the non-human; the adjective agrees in assonance with its noun, and euphony plays a great part in verbal and nominal inflections. In some ways resembling the Negro dialects, it betrays non-Negroid influences in the use of suffixes. The name of the people has many variations. Fulbe or Fula (sing. Pullo, Peul) is the Mandingan name, Follani the Hausa, Fellatah the Kanuri, Fullan the Arab, and Fulde on the Benue. Like the name Abate, “white," given them in Kororofa, all these seem to refer to their light reddish hue.

See F. Ratzel, History of Mankind (English ed., London, 18961898); Sir F. Lugard," Northern Nigeria," in Geographical Journal (July 1904): Grimal de Guirodon, Les Puls (1887); E. A. Brackenbury, A Short Vocabulary of the Fulani Language (Zungeru, 1907); the articles NIGERIA and SOKOто and authorities there cited.

1 Sir Wm. Wallace in a report on Northern Nigeria ("Colonial Office" series, No. 551, 1907) calls attention to the exodus "of French Middle Niger," and states that the majority of the emigrants thousands of Fulani of all sorts, but mostly Mellawa, from the are settling in the Nile valley.

FULCHER (or FOUCHER) OF CHARTRES (1058-c. 1130), | French chronicler, was a priest who was present at the council of Clermont in 1095, and accompanied Robert II., duke of Normandy, on the first crusade in 1096. Having spent some time in Italy and taken part in the fighting on the way to the Holy Land, he became chaplain to Baldwin, who was chosen king of Jerusalem in 1100, and lived with Baldwin at Edessa and then at Jerusalem. He accompanied this king on several warlike expeditions, but won more lasting fame by writing his Historia Hierosolymitana or Gesta Francorum Jerusalem expugnantium, one of the most trustworthy sources for the history of the first crusade. In its final form it is divided into three books, and covers the period between the council of Clermont and 1127, and the author only gives details of events which he himself had witnessed. It was used by William of Tyre. Fulcher died after 1127, probably at Jerusalem. He has been confused with Foucher of Mongervillier (d. 1171), abbot of St-Père-enVallée at Chartres, and also with another person of the same name who distinguished himself at the siege of Antioch in 1098.

The Historia, but in an incomplete form, was first published by J. Bongars in the Gesta Dei per Francos (Hanover, 1611). The best edition is in tome iii. of the Recueil des historiens des croisades, Historiens occidentaux (Paris, 1866); and there is a French translation in tome xxiv. of Guizot's Collection des mémoires relatifs à l'histoire de France (Paris, 1823-1835).

See H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881); and A. Molinier, Les Sources de l'histoire de France, tome ii. (Paris, 1902).

its abbot was primate of all the abbots in Germany and Gaul, and later he became a prince of the Empire. Fulda was specially famous for its school, which was the centre of the theological learning of the early middle ages. and Walafrid Strabo. Early in the 10th century the monastery were Alcuin, Hrabanus Maurus, who was abbot from 822 to 842, Among the teachers here responsible for restoring in its old strictness the Benedictine rule. was reformed by introducing monks from Scotland, who were Later the abbey lost some of its lands and also its high position, were over. Johann von Henneberg, who was abbot from 1529 and some time before the Reformation the days of its glory formers, but the Counter-Reformation made great progress here to 1541, showed some sympathy with the teaching of the reunder Abbot Balthasar von Dernbach. Gustavus Adolphus gave the abbey as a principality to William, landgrave of Hesse, but William's rule only lasted for ten years. In 1752 the abbot bishopric. This was secularized in 1802, and in quick succession was raised to the rank of a bishop, and Fulda ranked as a prince it belonged to the prince of Orange, the king of France and the principality was ceded by Prussia to Hesse-Cassel, a smaller portion being united with Bavaria. Sharing the fate of Hessegrand-duchy of Frankfort. In 1816 the greater part of the Cassel, this larger portion was annexed by Prussia in 1866. In 1829 a new bishopric was founded at Fulda.

For the town see A. Hartmann, Zeitgeschichte von Fulda (Fulda, and Chronik von Fulda und dessen Umgebungen (1839). For the 1895); J. Schneider, Führer durch die Stadt Fulda (Fulda, 1899); (Fulda, 1860); and the Fuldaer Geschichtsblätter (1902 fol.). history of the abbey see Gegenbaur, Das Kloster Fulda im Karolinger Zeitalter (Fulda, 1871-1874); Arndt, Geschichte des Hochstifts Fulda

FULDA, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, between the Rhön and the VogelGebirge, 69 m. N.E. from Frankfort-on-Main on the railway a native of Africa, flourished in the first half of the 6th (or the FULGENTIUS, FABIUS PLANCIADES, Latin grammarian, to Bebra. Although irregularly built the town is. pleasantly last part of the 5th) century A.D. He is to be distinguished situated, and contains two fine squares, on one of which stands a fine statue of St Boniface. The present cathedral was built probably related, and also from the bishop's pupil and biographer, from Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe (468-533), to whom he was at the beginning of the 18th century on the model of St Peter's Fulgentius Ferrandus. Four extant works are attributed to at Rome, but it has an ancient crypt, which contains the bones him. (1) Mythologiarum libri iii., dedicated to a certain of St Boniface and was restored in 1892. Opposite the cathedral Catus, a presbyter of Carthage, containing 75 myths briefly told, is the former monastery of St Michael, now the episcopal palace. and then explained in the mystical and allegorical manner of The Michaelskirche, attached to it, is a small round church built, the Stoics and Neoplatonists. For this purpose the author in imitation of the Holy Sepulchre, in 822 and restored in 1853. generally invokes the aid of etymologies which, borrowed from Of other buildings may be mentioned the Library, with upwards the philosophers, are highly absurd. As a Christian, Fulgentius of 80,000 printed books and many valuable MSS., the stately sometimes (but less frequently than might have been expected) palace with its gardens and orangery, the former Benedictine quotes the Bible by the side of the philosophers, to give a nunnery (founded 1625, and now used as a seminary), and the Christian colouring to the moral lesson. (2) Expositio Vergilianae Minorite friary (1238) now used as a furniture warehouse. Among continentiac (continentia=contents), a sort of appendix to (1), the secular buildings are the fine Schloss, the Bibliothek, the dedicated to Catus. town hall and the post office. There are several schools, a hospital explains the twelve books of the Aeneid as a picture of human founded in the 13th century, and some new artillery barracks. life. The three words arma (=virtus), vir (=sapientia), primus The poet himself appears to the author and Many industries are carried on in Fulda. These include weaving (=princeps) in the first line represent respectively substantia and dyeing, the manufacture of linen, plush and other textiles corporalis, sensualis, ornans. and brewing. There are also railway works in the town. large trade is done in cattle and grain, many markets being held peril of birth), book vi. the plunge into the depths of wisdom. A early childhood of man (the shipwreck of Aeneas denotes the Book i. symbolizes the birth and here. Fine views are obtained from several hills in the neighbour- (3) Expositio sermonum antiquorum, explanations of 63 rare and hood, among these being the Frauenberg, the Petersberg and obsolete words, supported by quotations (sometimes from authors the Kalvarienberg. work of Nonius, with which it is often edited. (4) Liber absque and works that never existed). It is much inferior to the similar litteris de actatibus mundi et hominis. In the MS. heading of this work, the name of the author is given as Fabius Claudius Gordianus Fulgentius (Claudius is the name of the father, and Gordianus that of the grandfather of the bishop, to whom some attribute the work)

Fulda owes its existence to its famous abbey. It became a town in 1208, and during the middle ages there were many struggles between the abbots and the townsfolk. During the Peasants' War it was captured by the rebels and during the Seven Years' War by the Hanoverians. It came finally into the possession of Prussia in 1866. From 1734 to 1804 Fulda was the seat of a university, and latterly many assemblies of, German bishops have been held in the town.

The great Benedictine abbey of Fulda occupies the place in the ecclesiastical history of Germany which Monte, Cassino holds in Italy, St Gall in South Germany, Corvey in Saxony, Tours in France and Iona in Scotland. Founded in 744 at the instigation of St Boniface by his pupil Sturm, who was the first abbot, it became the centre of a great missionary work. endowed with land by the princes of the Carolingian house and It was liberally others, and soon became one of the most famous and wealthy establishments of its kind. About 968 the pope declared that

letter of the alphabet is wholly omitted in each successive book The title Absque litteris indicates that one matter is chiefly taken from sacred history. In addition to these, (A in bk. i., B in bk. ii.). Only 14 books are preserved. The Fulgentius speaks of early poetical attempts after the manner of Anacreon, and of a work called Physiologus, dealing with medical questions, and including a discussion of the mystical signification of the numbers 7 and 9. Fulgentius is a representative of the Tertullian and Martianus Capella. His language is bombastic, so-called late African style, taking for his models Apuleius, affected and incorrect, while the lengthy and elaborate periods make it difficult to understand his meaning.

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