Mercury Potassium Sodium 630° 655° 962°. monosymmetric form which melts at 120°, but if heated rapidly | point of greatest constancy of temperature in the case of homothe rhombic form melts at 114.5. The two forms, rhombic and geneous crystalline solids. monosymmetric, can exist in equilibrium at 95.6°, the transition point at which they have the same vapour pressure. Similarly a solid solution of carbon in iron, when cooled slowly, passes at about 700° C., with considerable evolution of heat, into the form of "pearlite," which is soft when cold, but if rapidly chilled the carbon remains in solution and the steel is very hard (see also ALLOYS). In the case of crystalline fusion it is necessary to distinguish two cases, the homogeneous and the heterogeneous. In the first case the composition of the solid and liquid phases are the same, and the temperature remains constant during the whole process of fusion. In the second case the solid and liquid phases differ in composition; that of the liquid phase changes continuously, and the temperature does not remain constant during the fusion. The first case comprises the fusion of pure substances, and that of eutectics, or cryohydrates; the second is the general case of an alloy or a solution. These, have been very fully studied and their phenomena greatly elucidated in recent years. There is also a sub-variety of amorphous fusion, which may be styled colloid or gelatinous, and may be illustrated by the behaviour of solutions of water in gelatin. Many of these jellies melt at a fairly definite temperature on heating, and coagulate or set at a definite temperature on cooling. But in some cases the process is not reversible, and there is generally marked hysteresis, the temperature of setting and other phenomena depending on the rate of cooling. This case has not yet been fully worked out; but it appears probable that in many cases the jelly possesses a spongy framework of solid, holding liquid in its meshes or interstices. It might be regarded as a case of " heterogeneous amorphous fusion, in which the liquid separates into two phases of different composition, one of which solidifies before the other. The two phases cannot, as a rule, be distinguished optically, but it is generally possible to squeeze out some of the liquid phase when the jelly has set, which proves that the substance is not really homogeneous. In very complicated mixtures, such as acid lavas or slags containing a large proportion of silica, amorphous and crystalline solidification may occur together. In this case the crystals separate first during the process of cooling, the mother liquor increases gradually in viscosity, and finally sets as an amorphous ground-mass or matrix, in which crystals of different kinds and sizes, formed at different stages of the cooling, remain embedded. The formation of crystals in an amorphous solid after it has set is also of frequent occurrence. It is termed devitrification, but is a very slow process unless the solid is in a plastic state. 2. Homogeneous Crystalline Fusion.-The fusion of a solid of this type is characterized most clearly by the perfect constancy of temperature during the process. In fact, the law of constant temperature, which is generally stated as the first of the so-called "laws of fusion," does not strictly apply except to this case. The constancy of the F.P. of a pure substance is so characteristic that change of the F.P. is often one of the most convenient tests of the presence of foreign material. In the case of substances like ice, which melt at a low temperature and are easily obtained in large quantities in a state of purity, the point of fusion may be very accurately determined by observing the temperature of an intimate mixture of the solid and liquid while slowly melting as it absorbs heat from surrounding bodies. But in the majority of cases it is more convenient to observe the freezing point as the liquid is cooled. By this method it is possible to ensure perfect uniformity of temperature throughout the mass by stirring the liquid continuously during the process of freezing, whereas it is difficult to ensure uniformity of temperature in melting a solid, however gradually the heat is supplied, unless the solid can be mixed with the liquid. It is also possible to observe the F.P. in other ways, as by noting the temperature at the moment of the breaking of a wire, of the stoppage of a stirrer, or of the maximum rate of change of volume, but these methods are generally less certain in their indications than the Tin. Fusing Points of Common Metals. 38.8° Antimony 62.5° Aluminium 95.6° Silver 231.9° Gold 269.2° Copper 320.7° Nickel The above table contains some of the most recent values of fusing points of metals determined (except the first three and the last three) with platinum thermometers. The last three values are those obtained by extrapolation with platinumrhodium and platinum-iridium couples. (See Harker, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 76, p. 235, 1905.) Some doubt has recently been raised with regard to the value for platinum, which is much lower than that previously accepted, namely 1775°. 3. Superfusion, Supersaturation. It is generally possible to cool a liquid several degrees below its normal freezing point without a separation of crystals, especially if it is protected from agitation, which would assist the molecules to rearrange themselves. A liquid in this state is said to be “undercooled " or "superfused." The phenomenon is even more familiar in the case of solutions (e.g. sodium sulphate or acetate) which may remain in the "metastable" condition for an indefinite time if protected from dust, &c. The introduction into the liquid under this condition of the smallest fragment of the crystal, with respect to which the solution is supersaturated, will produce immediate crystallization, which will continue until the temperature is raised to the saturation point by the liberation of the latent heat of fusion. The constancy of temperature at the normal freezing point is due to the equilibrium of exchange existing between the liquid and solid. Unless both solid and liquid are present, there is no condition of equilibrium, and the temperature is indeterminate. It has been shown by H. A. Miers (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1906, 89, p. 413) that for a supersaturated solution in metastable equilibrium there is an inferior limit of temperature, at which it passes into the "labile" state, i.e. spontaneous crystallization occurs throughout the mass in a fine shower. This seems to be analogous to the fine misty condensation which occurs in a supersaturated vapour in the absence of nuclei (see VAPORIZATION) when the supersaturation exceeds a certain limit. 4. Effect of Pressure on the F.P.-The effect of pressure on the fusing-point depends on the change of volume during fusion. Substances which expand on freezing, like ice, have their freezing points lowered by increase of pressure; substances which expand on fusing, like wax, have their melting points raised by pressure. In each case the effect of pressure is to retard increase of volume. This effect was first predicted by James Thomson on the analogy of the effect of pressure on the boiling point, and was numerically verified by Lord Kelvin in the case of ice, and later by Bunsen in the case of paraffin and spermaceti. The equation by which the change of the F.P. is calculated may be proved by a simple applica tion of the Carnot cycle, exactly as in the case of vapour and liquid. (See THERMODYNAMICS.) If L be the latent heat of fusion in mechanical units, the volume of unit mass of the solid, and that of the liquid, the work done in an elementary Carnot cycle of range de will be dp(v′ —v′), if dp is the increase of pressure required to produce a change de in the F.P. Since the ratio of the workdifference or cycle-area to the heat-transferred L must be equal to de/e, we have the relation (1) The sign of de, the change of the F.P., is the same as that of the change of volume (v'-'). Since the change of volume seldom exceeds 0.1 c.c. per gramme, the change of the F.P. per atmosphere is so small that it is not as a rule necessary to take account of variations of atmospheric pressure in observing a freezing point. A variation of 1 cm. in the height of the barometer would correspond to a change of 0001° C. only in the F.P. of ice. This is far beyond the limits of accuracy of most observations. Although the effect of pressure is so small, it produces, as is well known. remarkable results in the motion of glaciers, the moulding and regelation of explain the apparent inversion of the order of crystallization in ice, and many other phenomena. It has also been employed to rocks like granite, in which the arrangement of the crystals indicates that the quartz matrix solidified subsequently to the crystals of de/dp=0(v′′ —v′)/L. metamorphic action on silicates. 20 felspar, mica or hornblende embedded in it, although the quartz | vertical line ND, a point D is generally reached at which the has a higher melting point. It is contended that under enormous solution becomes "saturated." The dissolved substance or be raised above that of the quartz, if the latter is less affected by and the concentration diminishes with fall of temperature in pressure the freezing points of the more fusible constituents might "solute" then separates out as the solution is further cooled, pressure. Thus Bunsen found the F.P. of paraffin wax 1.4° below that of spermaceti at atmospheric pressure. At 100 atmo- a definite relation, as indicated by the curve CB, which is called spheres the two melted at the same temperature. At higher pressures the solubility curve. Though often called by different names, the paraffin would solidify first. The effect of pressure on the silicates, however, is much smaller, and it is not so easy to explain the two curves AC and CB are a change of several hundred degrees in the F.P. It seems more essentially of a similar nature. likely in this particular case that the order of crystallization depends To take the case of an aqueous on the action of superheated water or steam at high temperatures solution of salt as an example, and pressures, which is well known to exert a highly solvent and along CB the solution is saturated with respect to salt, along AC the solution is saturated with respect to ice. When the point C is reached along either curve, the solution is saturated with respect to both salt and ice. The concentration cannot vary further, and the temperature remains constant, while the salt and ice crystallize out together, maintaining the exact proportions in which they exist in the solution. The resulting solid was termed a cryohydrate by F. Guthrie, but it is really an intimate mixture of two kinds of crystals, and not a chemical compound or hydrate containing the constituents in chemically equivalent proportions. The lowest temperature attainable by means of a freezing mixture is the temperature of the F.P. of the corresponding cryohydrate. In a mixture of salt and ice with the least trace of water a saturated brine is quickly formed, which dissolves the ice and falls rapidly in temperature, owing to the absorption of the latent heat of fusion. So long as both ice and salt are present, if the mixture is well stirred, the solution must necessarily become saturated with respect to both ice and salt, and this can only occur at the cryohydric temperature, at which the two curves of solubility intersect. 5. Variation of Latent Heat.-C. C. Person in 1847 endeavoured to show by the application of the first law of thermodynamics that the increase of the latent heat per degree should be equal to the difference (s-s') between the specific heats of the liquid and solid. If, for instance, water at o° C. were first frozen and then cooled to -1°C., the heat abstracted per gramme would be (L'+s't) calories. But if the water were first cooled to -1°C., and then frozen at -1° C., by abstracting heat L', the heat abstracted would be L+s. Assuming that the heat abstracted should be the same in the two cases, we evidently obtain L'-L" = (s′′-s′)t. This theory has been approximately verified by Petterson, by observing the freezing of a liquid cooled below its normal F.P. (Jour. Chem. Soc. 24, p. 151). But his method does not represent the true variation of the latent heat with temperature, since the freezing, in the case of a superfused liquid, really takes place at the normal freezing point. A quantity of heat s't is abstracted in cooling to -1, (L-st) in raising to o and freezing at o°, and s't in cooling the ice to -1. The latent heat L'at does not really enter into the experiment. In order to make the liquid freeze at a different temperature, it is necessary to subject it to pressure, and the effect of the pressure on the latent heat cannot be neglected. The entropy of a liquid at its F.P. reckoned from any convenient zero do in the solid state may be represented by the expression ¢′′ −¢o= fs'do /0+L/0. (2) Since @do"/d0=s", we obtain by differentiation the relation the specific heats s' and s of the solid and liquid at equilibrium 6. Freezing of Solutions and Alloys.-The phenomena of freezing of heterogeneous crystalline mixtures may be illustrated by the case of aqueous solutions and of metallic solutions or alloys, which have been most widely studied. The usual effect of an impurity, such as salt or sugar in solution in water, is to lower the freezing point, so that no crystallization occurs until the temperature has fallen below the normal F.P. of the pure solvent, the depression of F.P. being nearly proportional to the concentration of the solution. When freezing begins, the solvent generally separates out from the solution in the pure state. This separation of the solvent involves an increase in the strength of the remaining solution, so that the temperature does not remain constant during the freezing, but continues to fall as more of the solvent is separated. There is a perfectly definite relation between temperature and concentration at each stage of the process, which may be represented in the form of a curve as AC in fig. 1, called the freezing point curve. The equilibrium temperature, at the surface of contact between the solid and liquid, depends only on the composition of the liquid phase and not at all on the quantity of solid present. The abscissa of the F.P. curve represents the composition of that portion of the original solution which remains liquid at any temperature. If instead of starting with a dilute solution we start with a strong solution represented by a point N, and cool it as shown by the 20 68 80 100 FIG. 1.-F.P. or Solubility The curves in fig. 1 also illustrate the simplest type of freezing point curve in the case of alloys of two metals A and B which do not form mixed crystals or chemical compounds. The alloy corresponding to the cryohydrate, possessing the lowest melting point, is called the eutectic alloy, as it is most easily cast and worked. It generally possesses a very fine-grained structure, and is not a chemical compound. (See ALLOYS.) To obtain a complete F.P. curve even for a binary alloy is a laborious and complicated process, but the information contained in such a curve is often very valuable. It is necessary to operate with a number of different alloys of suitably chosen composition, and to observe the freezing points of each separately. Each alloy should also be analysed after the process if there is any risk of its composition having been altered by oxidation or otherwise. The freezing points are generally best determined by observing the gradual cooling of a considerable mass, which is well stirred so long as it remains liquid. The curve of cooling may most conveniently be recorded, either photographically, using a thermocouple and galvanometer, as in the method of Sir W. Roberts-Austen, or with pen and ink, if a platinum thermometer is available, according to the method put in practice by C. T. Heycock and F. H. Neville. A typical set of curves obtained in this manner is shown in fig. 2. When FIG. 2.-Cooling Curves the pure metal A in cooling reaches its of Alloys: typical case. F.P. the temperature suddenly becomes stationary, and remains accurately constant for a considerable period. Often it falls slightly below the F.P. owing to superfusion, but rises to the F.P. and remains constant as soon as freezing begins. The second curve shows the cooling of A with 10% of another metal B added. The freezing begins at a lower temperature with the separation of pure A. The temperature no longer remains constant during freezing, but falls more and more rapidly as the proportion of B in the liquid increases. When the eutectic temperature is reached there is a second F.P. or arrest at which the whole of the remaining liquid solidifies. With 20% of B the first F.P. is further lowered, and the tempera-forms a compound molecule with the solvent containing one atom ture falls faster. The eutectic F.P. is of longer duration, but still at the same temperature. For an alloy of the composition of the eutectic itself there is no arrest until the eutectic temperature is reached, at which the whole solidifies without change of temperature. There is a great advantage in recording these curves automatically, as the primary arrest is often very slight, and difficult to observe in any other way. 7. Change of Solubility with Temperature.-The lowering of the F.P. of a solution with increase of concentration, as shown by the F.P. or solubility curves, may be explained and calculated by equation (1) in terms of the osmotic pressure of the dissolved substance by analogy with the effect of mechanical pressure. It is possible in salt solutions to strain out the salt mechanically by a suitable filter or semi-permeable membrane," which permits the water to pass, but retains the salt. To separate 1 gramme of salt requires the performance of work PV against the osmotic pressure P, where V is the corresponding diminution in the volume of the solution. In dilute solutions, to which alone the following calculation can be applied, the volume V is the reciprocal of the concentration C of the solution in grammes per unit volume, and the osmotic pressure P is equal to that of an equal number of molecules of gas in the same space, and may be deduced from the usual equation of a gas, P=RO/VMR0C/M, (4) where M is the molecular weight of the salt in solution, the absolute temperature, and R a constant which has the value 8:32 joules, or nearly 2 calories, per degree C. It is necessary to consider two cases, corresponding to the curves CB and AB in fig. 1, in which the solution is saturated with respect to salt and water respectively. To facilitate description we take the case of a salt dissolved in water, but similar results apply to solutions in other liquids and alloys of metals. (a) If unit mass of salt is separated in the solid state from a saturated solution of salt (curve CB) by forcing out through a semipermeable membrane against the osmotic pressure P the corresponding volume of water V in which it is dissolved, the heat evolved is the latent heat of saturated solution of the salt together with the work done PV. Writing (Q+PV) for L, and V for ("-") in equation (1), and substituting P for p, we obtain Q+PV=VodP/d9, QC=202dC/do, (7) (5) which is equivalent to equation (1), and may be established by similar reasoning. Substituting for P and V in terms of C from equation (4), if Q is measured in calories, R=2, and we obtain (6) which may be integrated, assuming Q constant, with the result 2 log.C"/C'=Q/0' - Q/0”, where C', C are the concentrations of the saturated solution corresponding to the temperatures ' and 0. This equation may be employed to calculate the latent heat of solution Q from two observations of the solubility. It follows from these equations that Qis of the same sign as dC/de, that is to say, the solubility increases with rise of temperature if heat is absorbed in the formation of the saturated solution, which is the usual case. If, on the other hand, heat is liberated on solution, as in the case of caustic potash or sulphate of calcium, the solubility diminishes with rise of temperature. (b) In the case of a solution saturated with respect to ice (curve AC), if one gramme of water having a volume is separated by freezing. we obtain a precisely similar equation to (5), but with L the latent heat of fusion of water instead of Q, and instead of V. If the solution is dilute, we may neglect the external work Pv in comparison with L, and also the heat of dilution, and may write P/t for dP/de, where is the depression of the F.P. below that of the pure solvent. Substituting for P in terms of V from equation (4), we obtain 1=-0202/L. (8) t=20v/LVM=20w/LWM, · where W is the weight of water and w that of salt in a given volume of solution. If M grammes of salt are dissolved in 100 of water, w= M and W= 100. The depression of the F.P. in this case is called by van t' Hoff the "Molecular Depression of the F.P." and is given by the simple formula (9) Equation (8) may be used to calculate L or M, if either is known, from observations of t, and w/W. The results obtained are sufficiently approximate to be of use in many cases in spite of the rather liberal assumptions and approximations effected in the course of the reasoning. In any case the equations give a simple theoretical basis with which to compare experimental data in order to estimate the order of error involved in the assumptions. We may thus estimate the variation of the osmotic pressure from the value given by the gaseous equation, as the concentration of the solution or the molecular dissociation changes. The most uncertain factor in the formula is the molecular weight M, since the molecule in solution may be quite different from that denoted by the chemical formula of the solid. In many cases the molecule of a metal in dilute solution in another metal is either monatomic, or of the dissolved metal, in which case the molecular depression is given by putting the atornic weight for M. In other cases, as Cu, Hg, Zn, in solution in cadmium, the depression of the F.P. per atom, according to Heycock and Neville, is only half as great, which would imply a diatomic molecule. Similarly As and Au in Cd appear to be triatomic, and Sn in Pb tetratomic. Intermediate cases may occur in which different molecules exist together in equilibrium in proportions which vary according to the temperature and concentration. The most familiar case is that of an electrolyte, in which the molecule of the dissolved substance is partly dissociated into ions. In such cases the degree of dissociation may be estimated by observing the depression of the F.P., but the results obtained cannot always be reconciled with those deduced by other methods, such as measurement of electrical conductivity, and there are many difficulties which await satisfactory interpretation. Exactly similar relations to (8) and (9) apply to changes of boiling point or vapour pressure produced by substances in solution (see VAPORIZATION), the laws of which are very closely connected with the corresponding phenomena of fusion; but the consideration of the vapour phase may generally be omitted in dealing with the fusion of mixtures where the vapour pressure of either constituent is small. 8. Hydrates. The simple case of a freezing point curve, illustrated in fig. 1, is generally modified by the occurrence of compounds of a character analogous to hydrates of soluble salts, in which the dissolved substance combines with one or more molecules of the solvent. These hydrates may exist as compound molecules in the solution, but their composition cannot be demonstrated unless they can be separated in the solid state. Corresponding to each crystalline hydrate there is generally a separate branch of the solubility curve along which the crystals of the hydrate are in equilibrium with the saturated solution. At any given temperature the hydrate possessing the least solubility is the most stable. If two are present in contact less soluble will be formed at its expense until the conversion with the same solution, the more soluble will dissolve, and the is complete. The two hydrates cannot be in equilibrium with the same solution except at the temperature at which their solubilities are equal, i.e. at the point where the corresponding curves of solubility intersect. This temperature is called the "Transition Point." In the case of ZnSO4, as shown in fig. 3, the heptahydrate, with seven molecules of water, is the least soluble hydrate at ordinary temperatures, and is generally deposited from saturated solutions. Above 39° C., however, the hexahydrate, with six molecules, is less soluble, and a rapid conversion of the hepta- into the hexahydrate occurs if the former is heated above the transition point. The solubility of the hexahydrate is greater than that of the heptahydrate below 39°, but increases more slowly with rise of temperature. At about 80° C. the hexahydrate gives place to the monohydrate, which dissolves in water with evolution of heat, and diminishes in solubility with rise of temperature. Intermediate hydrates exist, but they are more soluble, and cannot be readily isolated. Both the mono- and hexahydrates are capable of existing in equilibrium with saturated solutions at temperatures far below their transition points, provided that the less soluble hydrate is not present in the crystalline form. The solubility curves can therefore be traced, as in fig. 3, over an extended range of temperature. The equilibrium of each hydrate with the solvent, considered separately, would present a diagram of two branches similar to fig. 1, but as a rule only a small portion of each curve can be realized, and the complete solubility curve, as experimentally determined, is composed of a number of separate pieces corresponding to the ranges of minimum solubility of different hydrates. Failure to recognize this coupled with the 80 $60 40 0 20 -20! FIG. 3.-Solubility Curves of The transition points of the hydrates given in the above list Richards, Proc. Amer. Acad., 1899, 34, p. 277) afford wellmarked constant temperatures which can be utilized as fixed points for experimental purposes. 9. Formation of Mixed Crystals.-An important exception to the general type already described, in which the addition of a dissolved substance lowers the F.P. of the solvent, is presented by the formation of mixed crystals, or “solid solutions," in which the solvent and solute occur mixed in varying proportions. This isomorphous replacement of one substance by another, in the same crystal with little or no change of form, has long been known and studied in the case of minerals and salts, but the relations between composition and melting-point have seldom been investigated, and much still remains obscure. In this case the process of freezing does not necessitate the performance of work of separation of the constituents of the solution, the F.P. is not necessarily depressed, and the effect cannot be calculated by the usual formula for dilute solutions. One of the simplest types of F.P. curve which may result from the occurrence of mixed crystals is illustrated by the case of alloys of gold and silver, or gold and platinum, in which the F.P. curve is nearly a straight line joining the freezing-points of the constituents. The equilibrium between the solid and liquid, in both of which the two metals are capable of mixing in all proportions, bears in this case an obvious and close analogy to the equilibrium between a mixed liquid (e.g. alcohol and water) and its vapour. In the latter case, as is well known, the vapour will contain a larger proportion of the more volatile constituent. Similarly in the case of the formation of mixed crystals, the liquid should contain larger proportion of the more fusible constituent than the solid with which it is in equilibrium. The composition of the crystals which are being deposited at any moment will, therefore, necessarily change as solidification proceeds, following the change in the composition of the liquid, and the temperature will fall until the last portions of the liquid to solidify will consist chiefly of the more fusible constituent, at the F.P. of which the solidification will be complete. If, however, as seems to be frequently the case, the composition of the solid and liquid phases do not greatly differ from each other, the greater part of the solidification will occur within a comparatively small range of temperature, and the initial F.P. of the alloy will be well marked. It is possible in this case to draw a second curve representing the composition of the solid phase which is in equilibrium with the liquid at any temperature. This curve will not represent the average composition of the crystals, but that of the outer coating only which is in equilibrium with the liquid at the moment. H. W. B. Roozeboom (Zeit. Phys. Chem. xxx. p. 385) has attempted to classify some of the possible cases which may occur in the formation of mixed crystals on the basis of J. W. Gibbs's thermodynamic potential, the general properties of which may be qualitatively deduced from a consideration of observed phenomena. But although this method may enable us to classify different types, and even to predict results in a qualitative manner, it does not admit of numerical calculation similar to equation (8), as the Gibbs's function itself is of a purely abstract nature and its form is unknown. There is no doubt that the formation of mixed crystals may explain many apparent anomalies in the study of F.P. curves. The whole subject has been most fruitful of results in recent years, and appears full of promise for the future. For further details in this particular branch the reader may consult a report by Neville (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1900), which contains numerous references to original papers by Roberts-Austen, Le Chatelier, Roozeboom and others. For the properties of solutions see SOLU(H. L. C.) TION. FÜSSEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, at the foot of the Alps (Tirol), on the Lech, 2500 ft. above the sea, with a branch line to Oberdorf on the railway to Augsburg. Pop. 4000. It has six Roman Catholic churches, a Franciscan monastery and a castle. Rope-making is an important industry. The castle, lying on a rocky eminence, is remarkable for the peace signed here on the 22nd of April 1745 between the elector Maximilian III., Joseph of Bavaria and Maria Theresa. Two miles to the S.E., immediately on the Austrian frontier, romantically situated on a rock overlooking the Schwanensee, is the magnificent castle of Hohenschwangau, and a little to the north, on the site of an old castle, that of Neuschwanstein, built by Louis II. of Bavaria. See H. Feistle, Füssen und Umgebung (1898). FUST, JOHANN ( ?-1466), early German printer, belonged to a rich and respectable burgher family of Mainz, which is known to have flourished from 1423, and to have held many civil and religious offices. The name was always written Fust, but in 1506 Johann Schöffer, in dedicating the German translation of Livy to the emperor Maximilian, called his grandfather Faust, and thenceforward the family assumed this name, and the Fausts of Aschaffenburg, an old and quite distinct family, placed Johann Fust in their pedigree. Johann's brother Jacob, a goldsmith, was one of the burgomasters in 1462, when Mainz was stormed and sacked by the troops of Count Adolf of Nassau, on which occasion he seems to have perished (see a document, dated May 8, 1463, published by Wyss in Quartalbl. des hist. Vereins für Hessen, 1879, p. 24). There is no evidence that, as is commonly asserted, Johann Fust was a goldsmith, but he appears to have been a money-lender or banker. On account of his connexion with Gutenberg (q.v.), he has been represented by some as the inventor of printing, and the instructor as well as the partner of Gutenberg, by others as his patron and benefactor, who saw the value of his discovery and supplied him with means to carry it out, whereas others paint him as a greedy and crafty speculator, who took advantage of Gutenberg's necessity and robbed him of the fruits of his invention. However this may be, the. Helmasperger document of November 6, 1455, shows that Fust advanced money to Gutenberg (apparently 800 guilders in 1450, and another 800 in 1452) for carrying on his work, and that Fust, in 1455, brought a suit against Gutenberg to recover the money he had lent, claiming 2020 (more correctly 2026) guilders for principal and interest. It appears that he had not paid in the 300 guilders a year which he had undertaken to furnish for expenses, wages, &c., and, according to Gutenberg, had said that he had no intention of claiming interest. The suit was apparently decided in Fust's favour, November 6, 1455, in the refectory of the Barefooted Friars of Mainz, when Fust made oath that he himself had borrowed 1550 guilders and given them to Gutenberg. There is no evidence that Fust, as is usually supposed, removed the portion of the printing materials covered by his mortgage to his own house, and carried on printing there with the aid of Peter Schöffer, of Gernsheim (who is known to have been a scriptor at Paris in 1449), to whom, probably about 1455,' he gave his only daughter Dyna or Christina in marriage. Their first publication was the Psalter, August 14, 1457, a folio of 350 pages, the first printed book with a complete date, and remarkable for the beauty of the large initials printed each in two colours, red and blue, from types made in two pieces. The Psalter was reprinted with the same types, 1459 (August 29), 1490, 1502 (Schöffer's last publication) and 1516. Fust and Schöffer's other works are given below" In 1464 Adolf This date is uncertain; some place the marriage in 1453 or soon after, others about 1464. It is probable that Fust alluded to this relationship when he spoke of Schöffer as pueri mei in the colophons of Cicero's De officiis of 1465 and 1466. This method was patented in England by Solomon Henry in 1789, and by Sir William Congreve in 1819. (3) Durandus, Rationale divinorum officiorum (1459), folio, 160 leaves; (4) the Clementine Constitutions, with the gloss of Johannes Andreae (1460), 51 leaves; (5) Biblia Sacra Latina (1462), folio, 2 vols., 242 and 239 leaves, 48 lines to a full page; (6) the Sixth Book of Decretals, with Andreae's gloss, 17th December 1465, folio, 141 leaves; (7) Cicero, De officiis (1465), 4to, 88 leaves, the first as he often expressed the desire to do in the last years of his life, he would not have abandoned any part of his fundamental thesis. The work is now largely superseded. of Nassau appointed for the parish of St Quintin three Baumeisters | theories. When he revised the book in 1875, his modifications (master-builders) who were to choose twelve chief parishioners were very slight, and it is conceivable that, had he recast it, as assistants for life. One of the first of these “ Vervaren," who were named on May-day 1464, was Johannes Fust, and in 1467 Adam von Hochheim was chosen instead of "the late " (selig) Johannes Fust. Fust is said to have gone to Paris in 1466 and to have died of the plague, which raged there in August and September. He certainly was in Paris on the 4th of July, when he gave Louis de Lavernade of the province of Forez, then chancellor of the duke of Bourbon and first president of the parliament of Toulouse, a copy of his second edition of Cicero, as appears from a note in Lavernade's own hand at the end of the book, which is now in the library of Geneva. But nothing further is known than that on the 30th of October, probably in 1471, an annual mass was instituted for him by Peter Schöffer, Conrad Henlif (for Henekes, or Henckis, Schöffer's partner? who married Fust's widow about 14681) and Johann Fust (the son), in the abbey-church of St Victor of Paris, where he was buried; and that Peter Schöffer founded a similar memorial service for Fust in 1473 in the church of the Dominicans at Mainz (Bockenheimer, Gesch. der Stadt Mainz, iv. 15).. Fust was formerly often confused with the famous magician Dr Johann Faust, who, though an historical figure. had nothing to do with him (see FAUST). | See further the articles GUTENBERG and TYPOGRAPHY. (J. H. H.) FUSTEL DE COULANGES, NUMA DENIS (1830-1889), French historian, was born in Paris on the 18th of March 1830, of Breton descent. After studying at the Ecole Normale Supérieure he was sent to the French school at Athens in 1853, directed some excavations in Chios, and wrote an historical account of the island. After his return he filled various educational offices, and took his doctor's degree with two theses, Quid Vestae cultus in institutis veterum privatis publicisque valuerit and Polybe, ou la Grèce conquise par les Romains (1858). In these works his distinctive qualities were already revealed. His minute knowledge of the language of the Greek and Roman institutions, coupled with his low estimate of the conclusions of contemporary scholars, led him to go direct to the original texts, which he read without political or religious bias. When, however, he had succeeded in extracting from the sources a general idea that seemed to him clear and simple, he attached himself to it as if to the truth itself, employing dialectic of the most penetrating, subtle and even paradoxical character in his deduction of the logical consequences. From 1860 to 1870 he was professor of history at the faculty of letters at Strassburg, where he had a brilliant career as a teacher, but never yielded to the influence exercised by the German universities in the field of classical and Germanic antiquities. It was at Strassburg that he published his remarkable volume La Cité antique (1864), in which he showed forcibly the part played by religion in the political and social evolution of Greece and Rome. Although his making religion the sole factor of this evolution was a perversion of the historical facts, the book was so consistent throughout, so full of ingenious ideas, and written in so striking a style, that it ranks as one of the masterpieces of the French language in the 19th century. By this literary merit Fustel set little store, but he clung tenaciously to his edition of a Latin classic and the first book containing Greek characters, while in the colophon Fust for the first time calls Schöffer puerum suum"; (8) the same, 4th February 1466; (9) Grammatica rhytmica (1466), folio, 11 leaves. They also printed in 1461-1462 several papal bulls, proclamations of Adolf of Nassau, &c. Nothing is known to have appeared for three years after the storming and capture of Mainz in 1462. Some confusion in the history of the Fust family has arisen since the publication of Bernard's Orig. de l'imprimerie (1853). On p. 262, vol. i. he gave an extract from the correspondence between Oberlin and Bodmann (now preserved in the Paris Nat. Library), from which it would appear that Peter Schöffer was the son-in-law, not of Johann Fust, but of a brother of his, Conrad Fust. Of the latter, however, no other trace has been found, and he is no doubt a fiction of F. J. Bodmann, who, partly basing himself on the "Conrad (Henlif, or Henckis) mentioned above, added the rest to gratify Oberlin (see Wyss in Quartalblätter des hist. Vereins für Hessen, 1879, p. 17). Fustel de Coulanges was the most conscientious of men, the most systematic and uncompromising of historians. Appointed to a lectureship at the Ecole Normale Supérieure in February 1870, to a professorship at the Paris faculty of letters in 1875, and to the chair of medieval history created for him at the Sorbonne in 1878, he applied himself to the study of the political institutions of ancient France. The invasion of France by the German armies during the war of 1870-71 attracted his attention to the Germanic invasions under the Roman Empire. Pursuing the theory of J. B. Dubos, but singularly transforming | it, he maintained that those invasions were not marked by the violent and destructive character usually attributed to them; that the penetration of the German barbarians into Gaul was a slow process; that the Germans submitted to the imperial administration; that the political institutions of the Merovingians had their origins in the Roman laws at least as much as, if not more than, in German usages; and, consequently, that there was no conquest of Gaul by the Germans. This thesis he sustained, brilliantly in his Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France, the first volume of which appeared in 1874. It was the author's original intention to complete this work in four volumes, but as the first volume was keenly attacked in Germany as well as in France, Fustel was forced in self-defence to recast the book entirely. With admirable conscientiousness he re-examined all the texts and wrote a number of dissertations, of which, though several (e.g. those on the Germanic mark and on the allodium and beneficium) were models of learning and sagacity, all were dominated by his general idea and characterized by a total disregard for the results of such historical disciplines as diplomatic. From this crucible issued an entirely new work, less well arranged than the original, but richer in facts and critical comments. The first volume was expanded into three volumes, La Gaule romaine (1891), L'Invasion germanique et la fin de l'empire(1891) and La Monarchie franque (1888), followed by three other volumes, L'Alleu et le domaine rural pendant l'époque merovingienne (1889), Les Origines du système féodal: le bénéfice et le patronat . . . (1890) and Les Transformations de la royauté pendant l'époque carolingienne (1892). Thus, in six volumes, he had carried the work no farther than the Carolingian period. The result of this enormous labour, albeit worthy of a great historian, clearly showed that the author lacked all sense of historical proportion. He was a diligent secker after the truth, and was perfectly sincere when he informed a critic of the exact number of " truths" he had discovered, and when he remarked to one of his pupils a few days before his death, "Rest assured that what I have written in my book is the truth." Such superb self-confidence can accomplish much, and it undoubtedly helped to form Fustel's talent and to give to his style that admirable concision which subjugates even when it fails to convince; but a student instinctively distrusts an historian who settles the most controverted problems with such impassioned assurance. The dissertations not embodied in his great work were collected by himself and (after his death) by his pupil, Camille Jullian, and published as volumes of miscellanies: Recherches sur quelques problèmes d'histoire (1885), dealing with the Roman colonate, the land system in Normandy, the Germanic mark, and the judiciary organization in the kingdom of the Franks; Nouvelles recherches sur quelques problèmes d'histoire (1891); and Questions historiques (1893), which contains his paper on Chios and his thesis on Polybius. His life was devoted almost entirely to his teaching and his books. In 1875 he was elected member of the Académie des Sciences Morales, and in 1880 reluctantly accepted the post of director of the Ecole Normale. Without intervening personally in French politics, he took a keen interest in the questions of administration and social reorganization arising from the fall of the imperialist régime and the disasters of the war. He wished |