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of a fishery district. During the herring season (June to Sep- | certain proportion of the scholars of highest standing in each tember) the population is increased by upwards of 10,000 per- class (only in classical courses, usually and with few exceptions sons. The fleet numbers more than 700 boats, and the annual only in graduating classes). More recent honorary societies value of the catch exceeds £200,000. The harbour, origin- of similar character among schools of science and engineering ally constructed as a refuge for British ships of war, is one are Sigma Xi and Tau Beta Pi. of the best on the east coast, and has been improved by the widening of the piers and the extension of the breakwaters. It has an area of upwards of eight acres, is easy of access, and affords anchorage for vessels of every size.

FRASERVILLE (formerly Rivière du Loup en Bas), a town and watering-place in Temiscouata county, Quebec, Canada, 107 m. (by water) north-east of Quebec, on the south shore of the St Lawrence river, and at the mouth of the Rivière du Loup, at the junction of the Intercolonial and Temiscouata railways. It contains a convent, boys' college, hospital, several mills, and is a favourite summer resort on account of the angling and shooting, and the magnificent scenery. Pop. (1901) 4569.

FRATER, FRATER HOUSE or FRATERY, a term in architecture for the hall where the members of a monastery or friary met for meals or refreshment. The word is by origin the same as "refectory." The older forms, such as freitur, fraytor and the like, show the word to be an adaptation of the O.Fr. fraitour, a shortened form of refraitour, from the Med. Lat. refectorium. The word has been confused with frater, a brother or friar, and hence sometimes confined in meaning to the dining-hall of a friary, while "refectory" is used of a monastery.

FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE, a class of student societies peculiar to the colleges and universities of the United States and Canada, with certain common characteristics, and mostly named from two or three letters of the Greek alphabet; hence they are frequently called "Greek Letter Societies." They are organized on the lodge system, and each fraternity comprises a number of affiliated lodges of which only one of any one fraternity is connected with the same institution. The lodges, called "chapters," in memory of the convocations of monks of medieval times, are usually designated by Greek letters also. They are nominally secret, with one exception (Delta Upsilon). Each chapter admits members from the lowest or freshman class, and of course loses its members as the students depart from college, consequently each chapter has in it at the same time members of all the four college classes and frequently those pursuing postgraduate studies. Where the attendance at a college is large the material from which fraternity members may be drawn is correspondingly abundant, and in some of the large colleges (e.g. at Cornell University and the University of Michigan) there are chapters of over twenty fraternities. All the fraternities aim to be select and to pick their members from the mass of incoming students. Where, however, the material to select from is not abundant and the rival fraternities are numerous, care in selection is impossible, and the chapters at any one college are apt to secure much the same general type of men. Many of the fraternities have, however, on account of a persistent selection of men of about the same tastes at different colleges, acquired a distinct character and individuality; for instance, Alpha Delta Phi is literary.

The first of these fraternities was the Phi Beta Kappa, founded at the College of William and Mary at Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1776. It was a little social club of five students: John Heath, Richard Booker, Thomas Smith, Armistead Smith and John Jones. Its badge was a square silver medal displaying the Greek letters of its name and a few symbols. In 1779 it authorized Elisha Parmelee, one of its members, to establish "meetings" or chapters at Yale and Harvard, these chapters being authorized to establish subordinate branches in their respective states. In 1781 the College of William and Mary was closed, its buildings being occupied in turn by the British, French and American troops, and the society ceased to exist. The two branches, however, were established-that at Yale in 1780 and that at Harvard in 1781. Chapters were established at Dartmouth in 1787, at Union in 1817, at Bowdoin in 1824 and at Brown in 1830. This society changed its character in 1826 and became non-secret and purely honorary in character, admitting to membership a

In 1825, at Union College, Kappa Alpha was organized, copying in style of badge, membership restrictions and the like, its predecessor. In 1827 two other similar societies, Sigma Phi and Delta Phi, were founded at the same place. In 1831 Sigma Phi placed a branch at Hamilton College and in 1832 Alpha Delta Phi originated there. In 1833 Psi Upsilon, a fourth society, was organized at Union. In 1835 Alpha Delta Phi placed a chapter at Miami University, and in 1839 Beta Theta Pi originated there, and so the system spread. These fraternities, it will be observed, were all undergraduate societies among the male students. In 1910 the total number of men's general fraternities was 32, with 1068 living chapters, and owning property worth many millions of dollars. In 1864 Theta Xi, the first professional fraternity restricting its membership to students intending to engage in the same profession, was organized. There were in 1910 about 50 of these organizations with some 400 chapters. In addition there are about 100 local societies or chapters acting as independent units. Some of the older of these, such as Kappa Kappa Kappa at Dartmouth, IKA at Trinity, Phi Nu Theta at Wesleyan and Delta Psi at Vermont, are permanent in character, but the majority of them are purely temporary, designed to maintain an organization until the society becomes a chapter of one of the general fraternities. In 1870 the first women's society or "sorority," the Kappa Alpha Theta, was organized at De Pauw University. There were in 1910, 17 general sororities with some 300 active chapters.

It is no exaggeration to say that these apparently insignificant organizations of irresponsible students have modified the college life of America and have had a wide influence. Members join in the impressionable years of their youth; they retain for their organizations a peculiar loyalty and affection, and freely contribute with money and influence to their advancement.

Almost universally the members of any particular chapter (or part of them) live together in a lodge or chapter house. The men's fraternities own hundreds of houses and rent as many more. The fraternities form a little aristocracy within the college community. Sometimes the line of separation is invisible, sometimes sharply marked. Sometimes this condition militates against the college discipline and sometimes it assists it. Conflicts not infrequently occur between the fraternity and nonfraternity element in a college.

It can readily be understood how young men living together in the intimate relationship of daily contact in the same house, having much the same tastes, culture and aspirations would form among themselves enduring friendships. In addition each fraternity has a reputation to maintain, and this engenders an esprit du corps which at times places loyalty to fraternity interests above loyalty to college interest or the real advantage of the individual. At commencements and upon other occasions the former members of the chapters return to their chapter houses and help to foster the pride and loyalty of the undergraduates. The chapter houses are commonly owned by corporations made up of the alumni. This brings the undergraduates into contact with men of mature age and often of national fame, who treat their membership as a serious privilege.

The development of this collegiate aristocracy has led to jealousy and bitter animosity among those not selected for membership. Some of the states, notably South Carolina and Arkansas, have by legislation, either abolished the fraternities at state-controlled institutions or seriously limited the privileges of their members. The constitutionality of such legislation has never been tested. Litigation has occasionally arisen out of attempts on the part of college authorities to prohibit the fraternities at their several institutions. This, it has been held, may lawfully be done at a college maintained by private endowment but not at an institution supported by public funds. In

the latter case all classes of the public are equally entitled to | of the church. Thus Giovanni Villani, speaking of the heretic the same educational privileges and members of the fraternities may not be discriminated against.

The fraternities are admirably organized. The usual system comprises a legislative body made up of delegates from the different chapters and an executive or administrative body elected by the delegates. Few of the fraternities have any judiciary. None is needed. The financial systems are sound, and the conventions of delegates meet in various parts of the United States, several hundred in number, spend thousands of dollars in travel and entertainment, and attract much public attention. Most of the fraternities have an inspection system by which chapters are periodically visited and kept up to a certain level of excellence.

The leading fraternities publish journals usually from four to eight times during the college year. The earliest of these was the Beta Theta Pl, first issued in 1872. All publish catalogues of their members and the most prosperous have issued histories. They also publish song books, music and many ephemeral and local publications.

The alumni of the fraternities are organized into clubs or associations having headquarters at centres of population. These organizations are somewhat loose, but nevertheless are capable. of much exertion and influence should occasion arise.

The college fraternity system has no parallel among the students of colleges outside of America. One of the curious things about it, however, is that while it is practically uniform throughout the United States, at the three prominent universities of Harvard, Yale and Princeton it differs in many respects from its character elsewhere. At Harvard, although there are chapters of a few of the fraternities, their influence is insignificant, their place being taken by a group of local societies, some of them class organizations. At Yale, the regular system of fraternities obtains in the engineering or technical department (the Sheffield Scientific School), but in the classical department the fraternity chapters are called "junior" societies, because they limit their membership to the three upper classes and allow the juniors each year practically to control the chapter affairs. Certain senior societies, of which the oldest is the Skull and Bones, which are inter-fraternity societies admitting freely members of the fraternities, are more prominent at Yale than the fraternities themselves. Princeton has two (secret) literary and fraternal societies, the American Whig and the Cliosophic, and various local social clubs, with no relationship to organizations in other colleges and not having Greek letter names.

At a few universities (for instance, Michigan, Cornell and Virginia), senior societies or other inter-fraternity societies exert great influence and have modified the strength of the fraternity system. Of late years, numerous societies bearing Greek names and imitating the externals of the college fraternities have sprung up in the high schools and academies of the country, but have excited the earnest and apparently united opposition of 'the authorities of such schools.

See William Raimond Baird, American College Fraternities (6th ed., New York, 1905); Albert C. Stevens, Cyclopedia of Fraternities (Paterson, N. J., 1899); Henry D. Sheldon, Student Life and Customs (New York, 1901); Homer L. Patterson, Patterson's College and School Directory (Chicago, 1904); H. K. Kellogg, College Secret Societies (Chicago, 1874); Albert P. Jacobs, Greek Letter Societies (Detroit, 1879). (W. R. B.*)

All

FRATICELLI (plural diminutive of Ital. frate, brother), the name given during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries to a number of religious groups in Italy, differing widely from each other, but all derived more or less directly from the Franciscan movement. Fra Salimbene says in his Chronicle (Parma ed., p. 108): who wished to found a new rule borrowed something from the Franciscan order, the sandals or the habit." As early as 1238 Gregory IX., in his bull Quoniam abundavit iniquilas, condemned and denounced as forgers (tanquam falsarios) all who begged or preached in a habit resembling that of the mendicant orders, and this condemnation was repeated by him or his successors. The term Fraticelli was used contemptuously to denote, not any particular sect, but the members of orders formed on the fringe

Dolcino, says in his Chronicle (bk. viii. ch. 84): "He is not a brother of an ordered rule, but a fraticello without an order." Similarly, John XXII., in his bull Sancta Romana et Universalis Ecclesia (28th of December 1317), condemns vaguely those "profanae multitudinis viri commonly called Fraticelli, or Brethren of the Poor Life, or Bizocchi, or Beguines, or by all manner of other names."

Some historians, in their zeal for rigid classification, have regarded the Fraticelli as a distinct sect, and have attempted to discover its dogmas and its founder. Some of the contemporaries of these religious groups fell into the same error, and in this way the vague term Fraticelli has sometimes been applied to the disciples of Armanno Pongilupo of Ferrara (d. 1269), who was undoubtedly a Cathar, and to the followers of Gerard Segarelli and Dolcino, who were always known among themselves as Apostolic Brethren (Apostolici). Furthermore, it seems absurd to classify both the Dolcinists and the Spiritual Franciscans as Fraticelli, since, as has been pointed out by Ehrle (Arch. f. Lit. u. Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters, ii. 107, &c.), Angelo of Clarino, in his De septem tribulationibus, written to the glory of the Spirituals, does not scruple to stigmatize the Dolcinists as disciples of the devil." It is equally absurd to include in the same category the ignorant Bizocchi and Segarellists and such learned disciples of Michael of Cesena and Louis of Bavaria as William of Occam and Bonagratia of Bergamo, who have often been placed under this comprehensive rubric

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The name Fraticelli may more justly be applied to the most exalted fraction of Franciscanism. In 1322 some prisoners declared to the inquisitor Bernard Gui at Toulouse that the Franciscan order was divided into three sections-the Conventuals, who were allowed to retain their real and personal property; the Spirituals or Beguines, who were at that time the objects of persecution; and the Fraticelli of Sicily, whose leader was Henry of Ceva (see Gui's Practica Inquisitionis, v.). It is this fraction of the order which John XXII. condemned in his bull Gloriosam Ecclesiam (23rd of January 1318), but without calling them Fraticelli. Henry of Ceva had taken refuge in Sicily at the time of Pope Boniface VIII.'s persecution of the Spirituals, and thanks to the good offices of Frederick of Sicily, a little colony of Franciscans who rejected all property had soon established itself in the island. Under Pope Clement V., and more especially under Pope John XXII., fresh Spirituals joined them; and this group of exalted and isolated ascetics soon began to regard itself as the sole legitimate order of the Minorites and then as the sole Catholic Church. After being excommunicated as "schismatics and rebels, founders of a superstitious sect, and propagators of false and pestiferous doctrines," they proceeded to elect a general (for Michael of Cesena had disavowed them) and then a pope called Celestine (L. Wadding, Annales, at date 1313). The rebels continued to carry on an active propaganda. In Tuscany particularly the Inquisition made persistent efforts to suppress them; Florence afflicted them with severe laws, but failed to rouse the populace against them, The papacy dreaded their social even more than their dogmatic influence. At first in Sicily and afterwards throughout Italy the Ghibellines gave them a warm welcome; the rigorists and the malcontents who had either left the church or were on the point of leaving, it, were attracted by these communities of needy rebels; and the tribune Rienzi was at one time disposed to join them. To overcome these ascetics it was necessary to have recourse to other ascetics, and from the outset the reformed Franciscans, or Franciscans of the Strict Observance, under the direction of their first leaders, Paoluccio da Trinci (d. 1390), Giovanni Stronconi (d. 1405), and St Bernardine of Siena, had been at great pains to restore the Fraticelli to orthodoxy. These early efforts, however, had little success. Alarmed by the number of the sectaries, and the extent of their influence, Pope Martin V., who had encouraged the Observants, and particularly Bernardine of Siena, fulminated two bulls (1418 and 1421) against the heretics, and entrusted different legates with the task of hunting them down. These measures failing, he decided, in

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1426, to appoint two Observants as inquisitors without territorial | had reasonable grounds for believing the statements to be true.
limitation to make a special crusade against the heresy of the It is also to be observed that, though damages cannot be re
Fraticelli. These two inquisitors, who pursued their duties covered in an action for a misrepresentation made with an honest
under three popes (Martin V., Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V.) belief in its truth, still any person induced to enter into a con-
were Giovanni da Capistrano and Giacomo della Marca. The tract by a misrepresentation, whether fraudulent or innocent, is
latter's valuable Dialogus contra Fraticellos (Baluze and Mansi, entitled to avoid the contract and to obtain a declaration that
Miscellanea, iv. 595-610) gives an account of the doctrines of it is not binding upon him. This is in accordance with the rule
Ithese heretics and of the activity of the two inquisitors, and shows of equity, which since the Judicature Act prevails in all the
that the Fraticelli not only constituted a distinct church but courts. Whether the representation is fraudulent or innocent,
a distinct society. They had a pope called Rinaldo, who was the contract is not void, but voidable. The party misled must
elected in 1429 and was succeeded by a brother named Gabriel. exercise his option to avoid the contract without delay, and
This supreme head of their church they styled bishop of before it has become impossible to restore the other party to the
Philadelphia," Philadelphia being the mystic name of their position in which he stood before the contract was made. If he
community; under him were bishops, e.g. the bishops of is too late, he can only rely on his claim for damages, and in
Florence, Venice, &c.; and, furthermore, a member of the order to assert this claim it is necessary to prove that the mis-
community named Guglielmo Majoretto bore the title of representation was fraudulent. Fraud, in its wider sense of
Emperor of the Christians." This organization, at least in dishonest dealing, though not a distinct cause of action, is often
so far as concerns the heretical church, had already been observed material as preventing the acquisition of a right, for which good
among the Fraticelli in Sicily, and in 1423 the general council faith is a necessary condition. Also a combination or conspiracy
of Siena affirmed with horror that at Peniscola there was an by two or more persons to defraud gives rise to liabilities not
heretical pope surrounded with a college of cardinals who made very clearly or completely defined.
no attempt at concealment. From 1426 to 1449 the Fraticelli FRAUENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
were unremittingly pursued, imprisoned and burned. The sect Prussia, on the Frische Haff at the mouth of the Bande, 41 m.
gradually died out after losing the protection of the common S.W. from Königsberg on the railway to Elbing. Pop. 2500.
people, whose sympathy was now transferred to the austere The cathedral (founded 1329), with six towers, stands on a
Observants and their miracle-worker Capistrano From 1466 commanding eminence adjoining the town and surrounded by
to 1471 there were sporadic burnings of Fraticelli, and in 1471 castellated walls and bastions. This is known as Dom-Frauen-
Tommaso di Scarlino was seht to Piombino and the littoral of burg, and is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ermeland.
Tuscany to track out some Fraticelli who had been discovered Within the cathedral is a monument to the astronomer Copernicus
in those parts. After that date the name disappears from history. bearing the inscription Astronomo celeberrimo, cujus nomen el
See F. Ehrle, "Die Spiritualen, ihr Verhältnis zum Franzis-gloria utrumque implevit orbem. There is a small port with
kanerorden und zu den Fraticellen " and "Zur Vorgeschichte des
Concils von Vienne," in Archie für Literatur- und Kirchengeschichte inconsiderable trade. Frauenberg was founded in 1287 and
des Mittelalters, vols. i., ii., ni.; Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, received the rights of a town in 1310.
S.V. "Fraticellen "; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition of the Middle
Ages, iii. 129-180 (London, 1888).
(P. A.)
FRAUD (Lat. fraus, deceit), in its widest sense, a term which
has never been exhaustively defined by an English court of law,
and for legal purposes probably cannot usefully be defined. But
as denoting a cause of action for which damages can be recovered
in civil proceedings it now has a clear and settled meaning. In
actions in which damages are claimed for fraud, the difficulties
and obscurities which commonly arise are due rather to the
complexity of modern commerce and the ingenuity of modern
swindlers than to any uncertainty or technicality in the modern
law. To succeed in such an action, the person aggrieved must
first prove a representation of fact, made either by words, by
writing or by conduct, which is in fact untrue. Mere conceal-
ment is not actionable unless it amounts not only to suppressio
veri, but to suggestio falsi. An expression of opinion or of
intention is not enough, unless it can be shown that the opinion
was not really held, or that the intention was not really enter-
tained, in which case it must be borne in mind, to use the phrase
of Lord Bowen, that the state of a man's mind is as much a matter
of fact as the state of his digestion. Next, it must be proved that
the representation was made without any honest belief in its
truth, that is, either with actual knowledge of its falsity or with
a reckless disregard whether it is true or false. It was finally
established, after much controversy, in the case of Derry v.
Peck in 1889, that a merely negligent misstatement is not action-
able. Further, the person aggrieved must prove that the
offender made the representation with the intention that he
should act on it, though not necessarily directly to him, and that
he did in fact act in reliance on it. Lastly, the complainant
must prove that, as the direct consequence, he has suffered
actual damage capable of pecuniary measurement.

As soon as the case of Derry v. Peek had established, as the general rule of law, that a merely negligent misstatement is not actionable, a statutory exception was made to the rule in the case of directors and promoters of companies who publish prospectuses and similar documents. By the Directors' Liability Act 1890, such persons are liable for damage caused by untrue statements in such documents, unless they can prove that they

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FRAUENFELD, the capital of the Swiss canton of Thurgau,
27 m. by rail N.E. of Zürich or 14 m. W. of Romanshorn.
It is built on the Murg stream a little above its junction with the
Thur. It is a prosperous commercial town, being situated at
the meeting point of several routes, while it possesses several
industrial establishments, chicfly concerned with different
branches of the iron trade. In 1900 its population (including the
neighbouring villages) was 7761, mainly German-speaking,
while there were 5563 Protestants to 2188 Romanists. Frauen.
feld is the artillery depôt for North-East Switzerland. The upper
town is the older part, and centres round the castle, of which the
tower dates from the 10th century, though the rest is of a later
period. Both stood on land belonging to the abbot of Reichenau,
who, with the count of Kyburg, founded the town, which is first
mentioned in 1255. The abbot retained all manorial rights till
1803, while the political powers of the Kyburgers (who were the

protectors" of Reichenau) passed to the Habsburgs in 1273,
and were seized by the Swiss in 1460 with the rest of the
Thurgau. In 1712 the town succeeded Baden in Aargau as the
meeting-place of the Federal Diet, and continued to be the capital
of the Confederation till its transformation in 1798. In 1799 it
was successively occupied, by the Austrians and the French.
The old Capuchin convent (1591-1848) is now occupied as a
vicarage by the Romanist priest.
(W. A. B. C.)

FRAUENLOB, the name by which HEINRICH VON MEISSEN,
a German poet of the 13th century, is generally known. He
seems to have acquired the sobriquet because in a famous
Liederstreit with his rival Regenbogen he defended the use of the
word Frau (i.e. frouwe, lady) instead of Weib (wip=woman).
Frauenlob was born about 1250 of a humble burgher family."
His youth was spent in straitened circumstances, but he gradu-
ally acquired a reputation as a singer at the various courts of
the German princes. In 1278 we find him with Rudolph I.
in the Marchfeld, in 1286 he was at Prague at the knighting of
Wenceslaus (Wenzel) II., and in 1311 he was present at a knightly
festival celebrated by Waldemar of Brandenburg before Rostock.
After this he settled in Mainz, and there according to the popular
account, founded the first school of Meistersingers (q.v.). He
died in 1318, and was buried in the cloisters of the cathedral at

2

D

Mainz. His grave is still marked by a copy made in 1783 of the original tombstone of 1318; and in' 1842 a monument by Schwanthaler was erected in the cloisters. Frauenlob's poems make a great display of learning; he delights in far-fetched metaphors, and his versification abounds in tricks of form and rhyme. Frauenlob's poetry was edited by L. Ettmüller in 1843; a selection will be found in K. Bartsch, Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis 14. Jahrhunderts (3rd ed., 1893). An English translation of Frauenlob's Cantica canticorum, by A. E. Kroeger, with notes, appeared in 1877 at St Louis, U.S.A. See A. Boerkel, Frauenlob (2nd ed., 1881). FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM (c. 1558-1633), English poet, a native of Shropshire, was born between 1558 and 1560. His name was registered as a pupil of Shrewsbury School in January 1571/2, and he joined St John's College, Cambridge, in 1576, becoming a fellow in 1580/81. His Latin comedy of Victoria, dedicated to Sidney, was probably written at Cambridge, where he remained until he had taken his M.A. degree in 1583. He was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1588, and then apparently practised as a barrister in the court of the Welsh marches. After the death of his patron Sir Philip Sidney, Fraunce was protected by Sidney's sister Mary, countess of Pembroke. His last work was published in 1592, and we have no further knowledge of him until 1633, when he is said to have written an Epithalamium in honour of the marriage of Lady Magdalen Egerton, 7th daughter of the carl of Bridgwater, whose service he may possibly have entered. The Lamentations of Amintas for the death of Phyllis (1587), a version in English hexameters of his friend's, Thomas Watson's, Latin Amyntas; The Lawiers Logike, exemplifying the praecepts of Logike by the practise of the common Lawe (1588); Arcadian Rhetorike (1588); Abrahami Fransi Insignium, Armorum... explicatio (1588); The Countess of Pembroke's Yoychurch (1591/2), containing a translation of Tasso's Aminta, a reprint of his earlier version of Watson, "The Lamentation of Corydon for the love of Alexis" (Virgil, eclogue ii.), a short translation from Heliodorus, and, in the third part (1592) "Aminta's Dale," a collection of "conceited" tales supposed to be related by the nymphs of Ivychurch; The Countess of Pembroke's Emanuell (1591); The Third Part of the Countess of Pembroke's Ivychurch, entituled Aminta's Dale (1592). His Arcadian Rhetorike owes much to earlier critical treatises, but has a special interest from its references to Spenser, and Fraunce quotes from the Faerie Queene a year before the publication of the first books. In "Colin Clout's come home again," Spenser speaks of Fraunce as Corydon, on account of his translations of Virgil's second eclogue. His poems are written in classical metres, and he was regarded by his contemporaries as the best exponent of Gabriel Harvey's theory. Even Thomas Nashe had a good word for "sweete Master France."

His works are:

The Countess of Pembroke's Emanuell, hexameters on the nativity and passion of Christ, with versions of some psalms, were reprinted by Dr A. B. Grosart in the third volume of his Miscellanies of the Fuller Worthies Library (1872). Joseph Hunter in his Chorus Vatum stated that five of Fraunce's songs were included in Sidney's Astrophel and Stella, but it is probable that these should be attributed not to Fraunce, but to Thomas Campion. See a life prefixed to the transcription of a MS. Latin comedy by Fraunce, Victoria, by Professor G. C. Moore Smith, published in Bang's Materialien zur Kunde des alleren englischen Dramas, vol. xiv., 1906.

FRAUNHOFER, JOSEPH VON (1787-1826), German optician and physicist, was born at Straubing in Bavaria on the 6th of March 1787, the son of a glazier who died in 1798. He was apprenticed in 1799 to Weichselberger, a glass-polisher and lookingglass maker. On the 21st of July 1801 he nearly lost his life by the fall of the house in which he lodged, and the elector of Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph, who was present at his extrication from the ruins, gave him 18 ducats. With a portion of this sum he obtained release from the last six months of his apprenticeship, and with the rest he purchased a glass-polishing machine. He now employed himself in making optical glasses, and in engraving on metal, devoting his spare time to the perusal of works on mathematics and optics. In 1806 he obtained the place of optician in the mathematical institute which in 1804 had been founded at Munich by Joseph von Utzschneider, G. Reichenbach and J. Liebherr; and in 1807 arrangements were made by

Utzschneider for his instruction by Pierre Louis Guinand, a skilled optician, in the fabrication of flint and crown glass, in which he soon became an adept (see R. Wolf, Gesch. der Wissensch. in Deutschl. bd. xvi. p. 586). With Reichenbach and Utzschneider, Fraunhofer established in 1809 an optical institute at Benedict beuern, near Munich, of which he in 1818 became sole manager. The institute was in 1819 removed to Munich, and on Fraunhofer's death came under the direction of G. Merz. Amongst the earliest mechanical contrivances of Fraunhofer was a machine for polishing mathematically uniform spherical surfaces. He was the inventor of the stage-micrometer, and of a form of heliometer; and in 1816 he succeeded in constructing for the microscope achromatic glasses of long focus, consisting of a single lens, the constituent glasses of which were in juxta position, but not cemented together. The great reflecting telescope at Dorpat was manufactured by him, and so great was the skill he attained in the making of lenses for achromatic telescopes that, in a letter to Sir David Brewster, he expressed his willingness to furnish an achromatic glass of 18 in. diameter. the Denkschriften der Münchener Akademie for 1814-1815, by Fraunhofer is especially known for the researches, published in which he laid the foundation of solar and stellar chemistry. The dark lines of the spectrum of sunlight, earliest noted by Dr W. H: Wollaston (Phil. Trans., 1802, p. 378), were inde pendently discovered, and, by means of the telescope of a theodolite, between which and a distant slit admitting the light a prism was interposed, were for the first time carefully observed by Fraunhofer, and have on that account been desig nated " Fraunhofer's lines." He constructed a map of as many as 576 of these lines, the principal of which he denoted by the letters of the alphabet from A to G; and by ascertaining their refractive indices he determined that their relative positions are constant, whether in spectra produced by the direct rays of the sun, or by the reflected light of the moon and planets. The spectra of the stars he obtained by using, outside the object-glass of his telescope, a large prism, through which the light passed to be brought to a focus in front of the eye-piece. He showed that in the spectra of the fixed stars many of the dark lines were different from those of the solar spectrum, whilst other wellknown solar lines were wanting; and he concluded that it was not by any action of the terrestrial atmosphere upon the light passing through it that the lines were produced. He further expressed the belief that the dark lines D of the solar spectrum coincide with the bright lines of the sodium flame. He was also the inventor of the diffraction grating.

In 1823 he was appointed conservator of the physical cabinet at Munich, and in the following year he received from the king of Bavaria the civil order of merit. He died at Munich on the 7th of June 1826, and was buried near Reichenbach, whose decease had taken place eight years previously. On his tomb is the inscription " Approximavit sidera."

See J. von Utzschneider, Kurzer Umriss der Lebensgeschichte des Herrn Dr J. von Fraunhofer (Munich, 1826); and G. Merz, Das Leben und Wirken Fraunhofers (Landshut, 1865)

FRAUSTADT (Polish, Wszowa), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Posen, in a flat sandy country dotted with windmills, 50 m. S.S.W. of Posen, on the railway Lissa-Sagan. Pop. (including a garrison) 7500. It has three Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a classical school and a teachers' seminary; the manufactures include woollen and cotton goods, hats, morocco leather and gloves, and there is a considerable trade in corn, cattle and wool. Fraustadt was founded by Silesians in 1348, and afterwards belonged to the principality of Glogau. Near the town the Swedes under Charles XII. defeated the Saxons on the 13th of February 1706.

FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC, COMTE DE (17651841), French prelate and statesman, distinguished as an orator and as a controversial writer, was born of humble parentage at Curières, in the department of Aveyron, on the 9th of May 1765. He owes his reputation mainly to the lectures on dogmatic theology, known as the "conferences" of Saint Sulpice, delivered in the church of Saint Sulpice, Paris,, from 1803 to

1809, to which admiring crowds were attracted by his lucid | sistently endeavoured to secure the throne for her own children.
exposition and by his graceful oratory. The freedom of his lan-
guage in 1809, when Napoleon had arrested the pope and de-
clared the annexation of Rome to France, led to a prohibition
of his lectures; and the dispersion of the congregation of Saint
Sulpice in 1811 was followed by his temporary retirement from
the capital. He returned with the Bourbons, and resumed his
lectures in 1814; but the events of the Hundred Days again
compelled him to withdraw into private life, from which he did
not emerge until February 1816. As court preacher and almoner
to Louis XVIII., he now entered upon the period of his greatest
public activity and influence. In connexion with the con-
troversy raised by the signing of the reactionary concordat of
1817, he published in 1818 a treatise entitled Vrais Principes
de l'église Gallicane sur la puissance ecclésiastique, which though
unfavourably criticized by Lamennais, was received,with favour
by the civil and ecclesiastical authorities. The consecration of
Frayssinous as bishop of Hermopolis “in partibus," his election
to the French Academy, and his appointment to the grand-master-
ship of the university, followed in rapid succession. In 1824,
on the accession of Charles X., he became minister of public in-
struction and of ecclesiastical affairs under the administration
of Villèle; and about the same time he was created a peer of
France with the title of count. His term of office was chiefly
marked by the recall of the Jesuits. In 1825 he published his
lectures under the title Défense du christianisme. The work
passed through 15 editions within 18 years, and was translated
into several European languages. In 1828 he, along with his
colleagues in the Villèle ministry, was compelled to resign office,
and the subsequent revolution of July 1830 led to his retire-
ment to Rome. Shortly afterwards he became tutor to the duke
of Bordeaux (Comte de Chambord) at Prague, where he con-
tinued to live until 1838. He died at St Géniez on the 12th of
December 1841.

See Bertrand, Bibl. Sulpicienne (t. ii. 135 sq.; iii. 253) for bibliography, and G. A. Henrion (Paris, 2 vols., 1844) for biography. FRÉCHETTE, LOUIS HONORÉ (1839-1908), French-Canadian poet, was born at Levis, Quebec, on the 16th of November 1839, the son of a contractor. He was educated in his native province, and called to the Canadian bar in 1864. He started the Journal de Lévis, and his revolutionary doctrines compelled him to leave Canada for the United States. After some years spent in journalism at Chicago, he was in 1874 elected as the Liberal candidate to represent Levis in the Canadian parliament. At the elections of 1878 and 1882 he was defeated, and thereafter confined himself to literature. He edited La Patrie and other French papers in the Dominion; and in 1889 was appointed clerk of the Quebec legislative council. He was long a warm advocate of the political union of Canada and the United States, but in later life became less ardent, and in 1897 accepted the honour of C.M.G. from Queen Victoria. He was president of the Royal Society of Canada, and of the Canadian Society of Arts, and received numerous honorary degrees. His works include: Mes Loisirs (1863); La Voix d'un exilé (1867), a satire against the Canadian government; Pêle-mêle (1877); Les Fleurs boréales, and Les Oiseaux de neige (1880), crowned by the French academy; La Légende d'un peuple (1887); two historical dramas, Papineau (1880) and Felix Poutré (1880); La Noël au Canada (1900), and several prose works and translations. An exponent of local French sentiment, he won the title of the "Canadian Laureate." He died on the 1st of June 1958.

1

FREDEGOND (Fredigundis) (d. 597), Frankish queen. Originally a serving-woman, she inspired the Frankish king, Chilperic I., with a violent passion. At her instigation he repudiated his first wife Audovera, and strangled his second, Galswintha, Queen Brunhilda's sister. A few days after this murder Chilperic married Fredegond (567). This woman exercised a most pernicious influence over him. She forced him into war against Austrasia, in the course of which she procured the assassination of the victorious king Sigebert (575); she carried on a malignant struggle against Chilperic's sons by his first wife, Theodebert, Merwich and Clovis, who all died tragic deaths; and she per

Her first son Thierry, however, to whom Bishop Ragnemod of
Paris stood godfather, died soon after birth, and Fredegond
tortured a number of women whom she accused of having
bewitched the child. Her second son also died in infancy. Finally,
she gave birth to a child who afterwards became king as Clotaire
II. Shortly after the birth of this third son, Chilperic himself
perished in mysterious circumstances (584). Fredegond has been
accused of complicity in his murder, but with little show of
probability, since in her husband she lost her principal supporter.
Henceforth Fredegond did all in her power to gain the king-
dom for her child. Taking refuge at the church of Notre Dame
at Paris, she appealed to King Guntram of Burgundy, who
took Clotaire under his protection and defended him against his
other nephew, Childebert II., king of Austrasia. From that
time until her death Fredegond governed the western kingdom.
She endeavoured to prevent the alliance between King Guntram
and Childebert, which was cemented by the pact of Andelot;
and made several attempts to assassinate Childebert by sending
against him hired bravoes armed with poisoned scramasaxes
(heavy single-edged knives). After the death of Childebert
in 595 she resolved to augment the kingdom of Neustria at the
expense of Austrasia, and to this end seized some cities near
Paris and defeated Theodebert at the battle of Laffaux, near
Soissons. Her triumph, however, was short-lived, as she died
quietly in her bed in 597 soon after her victory.
See V. N.Augustin Thierry, Récits des temps mérovingiens (Brussels,
"Frédé
1840); Ulysse Chevalier, Bio-bibliographie (2nd ed.), s.v.
(C. PF.)
gonde."
FREDERIC, HAROLD (1856-1898), Anglo-American novelist,
was born on the 19th of August 1856 at Utica, N.Y., was edu-
cated there, and took to journalism. He went to live in England
as London correspondent of the New York Times in 1884, and
was soon recognized for his ability both as a writer and as a
talker. He wrote several clever early stories, but it was not
till he published Illumination (1896), followed by Gloria Mundi
(1898), that his remarkable gifts as a novelist were fully realized.
He died in England on the 19th of October 1898.

FREDERICIA (FRIEDERICIA), a seaport of Denmark, near the
S.E. corner of Jutland, on the west shore of the Little Belt
opposite the island of Fünen. Pop. (1901) 12,714. It has
railway communication with both south and north, and a steam
ferry connects with Middelfart, a seaside resort and railway
station on Fünen. There is a considerable shipping trade, and
the industries comprise the manufacture of tobacco, salt and
chicory, and of cotton goods and hats. A small fort was erected
on the site of Fredericia by Christian IV. of Denmark, and his
successor, Frederick III., determined about 1650 to make it a
powerful fortress. Free exercise of religion was offered to all
who should settle in the new town, which at first bore the name
of Frederiksodde, and only received its present designation in
1664. In 1657 it was taken by storm by the Swedish general
Wrangel, and in 1659, after the fortress had been dismantled,
it was occupied by Frederick William of Brandenburg. It was
not till 1709-1710 that the works were again put in a state of
defence. In 1848 no attempt was made by the Danes to
oppose the Prussians, who entered on the 2nd of May, and main-
tained their position against the Danish gunboats. During the
armistice of 1848-1849 the fortress was strengthened, and soon
afterwards it stood a siege of two months, which was brought
to a glorious close by a successful sortie on the 6th of July 1849.
In memory of the victory several monuments have been erected in
the town and its vicinity, of which the most noticeable are the
bronze statue of the Danish Land Soldier by Bissen (one of
Thorvaldsen's pupils), and the great barrow over 500 Danes in
the cemetery of the Holy Trinity Church, with a bas-relief by
the same sculptor. On the outbreak of the war of 1864, the
fortress was again strengthened by new works and an entrenched
camp; but the Danes suddenly evacuated it on the 28th of April
after a siege of six weeks. The Austro-Prussian army partly
destroyed the fortifications, and kept possession of the town
till the conclusion of peace.

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