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the bishop's bailiff, and the holders of the burgages composed the juries of the bishop's courts leet and baron. incorporation is extant, but in 1563 contests were carried on No charter of under the name of the bailiffs, burgesses and commonalty, and a list of borough accounts exists for 1696. The bishop appointed the last borough bailiff in 1681, and though the inhabitants in 1772 petitioned for a bailiff the town remained under a steward and grassmen until the 19th century. As part of the palatinate of Durham, Gateshead was not represented in parliament until 1832. At the inquisition of 1336 the burgesses claimed an annual fair on St Peter's Day, and depositions in 1577 mention a borough market held on Tuesday and Friday, but these were apparently extinct in Camden's day, and no grant of them is extant. The medieval trade seems to have centred round the fisheries and the neighbouring coal mines which are mentioned in 1364 and also by Leland.

GATH, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines." It is frequently mentioned in the historical books of the Old Testament, and from Amos vi. 2 we conclude that, like Ashdod, it fell to Sargon in 711. Its site appears to have been known in the 4th century, but the name is now lost. Eusebius (in the Onomasticon) places it near the road from Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin) to Diospolis (Ludd) about five Roman miles from the former. The Roman road between these two towns is still traceable, and its milestones remain in places. East of the road at the required distance rises a white cliff, almost isolated, 300 ft. high and full of caves. On the top is the little mud village of Tell eş-Şafi ("the shining mound "), and beside the village is the mound which marks the site of the Crusaders' castle of Blanchegarde (Alba Custodia), built in 1144. Tell eş-Şafi was known by its present name as far back as the 12th century; but it appears not improbable that the strong site here existing represents the ancient Gath. The cliff stands on the south side of the mouth of the Valley of Elah, and Gath appears to have been near this valley (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 52). This identification is not certain, but it is at least much more probable than the theory which makes Gath, Eleutheropolis, and Beit Jibrin one and the same place. The site was partially excavated by the Palestine Exploration Fund in 1899, and remains extending in date back to the early Canaanite period were discovered.

was born at Burnham, Essex, in 1809. She early began to draw of the British Museum from the age of ten. She also illuminated and to etch on copper, being a regular visitor to the print-room initials. In 1839 Margaret Scott married the Rev. Alfred Gatty, on vellum, copying the old strawberry borders and designing D.D., vicar of Ecclesfield near Sheffield, subdean of York cathedral, and the author of various works both secular and religious, In 1842 she published in association with her husband a life of her father; but her first independent work was The Fairy Godmother and other Tales, which appeared in 1851. This was followed in 1855 by the first of five volumes of Parables from Nature, the last being published in 1871. It was under the nom de plume of Aunt Judy, as a pleasant and instructive writer for children, that Mrs Gatty was most widely known. Before starting Aunt Judy's Magazine in May 1866, she had brought out among the other children's books which she subsequently Aunt Judy's Tales (1858) and Aunt Judy's Letters (1862), and published were Aunt Judy's Song Book for Children and The by her daughter Juliana Horatia Ewing (q.v.) The editor of the Mother's Book of Poetry. magazine was on the friendliest terms with her young corre"Aunt Judy" was the nickname given spondents and subscribers, and her success was largely due to the sympathy which enabled her to look at things from the child's point of view. Besides other excellences her children's books are specially characterized by wholesomeness of sentiment and cheerful humour. Her miscellaneous writings include, in addition to several volumes of tales, The Old Folks from Home, an account of a holiday ramble in Ireland; The Travels and Adventures of Dr Wolff the Missionary (1861), an autobiography edited by her; British Sea Weeds (1862); Waifs and Strays of Natural History (1871); A Book of Emblems and The Book of SunDials (1872). She died at Ecclesfield vicarage on the 4th of October 1873.

GAU, JOHN (c. 1495-? 1553), Scottish translátor, was born at in St Salvator's College at St Andrews. He appears to have been Perth towards the close of the 15th century. He was educated in residence at Malmö in 1533, perhaps as chaplain to the Scots community there. In that year John Hochstraten, the exiled Antwerp printer, issued a book by Gau entitled: The Richt vay GATLING, RICHARD JORDAN (1818-1903), American in- the first Scottish book written on the side of the Reformers. It is to the Kingdome of Heuine, of which the chief interest is that it is ventor, was born in Hertford county, North Carolina, on the 12th of September 1818. He was the son of a well-to-do planter Rige (Antwerp, 1531), for the most part direct, but showing a translation of Christiern Pedersen's Den relle vey till Hiemmerigis and slave-owner, from whom he inherited a genius for mechanical intimate knowledge in places of the German edition of Urbanus invention and whom he assisted in the construction and perfecting Rhegius. Only one copy of Gau's text is extant, in the library of of machines for sowing cotton seeds, and for thinning the plants. Britwell Court, Bucks. It has been assumed that all the copies He was well educated and was successively a school teacher and a merchant, spending all his spare time in developing new inven- intercepted by the Scottish officers on the look out for the were shipped from Malmö to Scotland, and that the cargo was tions. In 1839 he perfected a practical screw propeller for steam- heretical works which were printed abroad in large numbers. boats, only to find that a patent had been granted to John This may explain the silence of all the historians of the Reformed Ericsson for a similar invention a few months earlier. He estab- Church-Knox, Calderwood and Spottiswood. Gau married in lished himself in St Louis, Missouri, and taking the cotton-1536 a Malmö citizen's daughter, bearing the Christian name sowing machine as a basis he adapted it for sowing rice, wheat and other grains, and established factories for its manufacture. The introduction of these machines did much to revolutionize the agricultural system in the country. study of medicine through an attack of smallpox, he completed a Becoming interested in the course at the Ohio Medical College, taking his M.D. degree in 1850. In the same year he invented a hemp-breaking machine, and in 1857 a steam plough. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was living in Indianapolis, and devoted himself at once to the perfecting of fire-arms. In 1861 he conceived the idea of the rapid fire machine-gun which is associated with his name. By 1862 he had succeeded in perfecting a gun that would discharge 350 shots per minute; but the war was practically over before the Federal authorities consented to its official adoption. From that time, however, the success of the invention was assured, and within ten years it had been adopted by almost every civilized nation. Gatling died in New York City on the 26th of February 1903.

GATTY, MARGARET (1809-1873), English writer, daughter of the Rev. Alexander Scott (1768-1840), chaplain to Lord Nelson,

Birgitta. She died in 1551, and he in or about 1553.

Caledonia, ii. 616. Chalmers, who was the owner of the unique
The first reference to the Richt Vay appeared in Chalmers's
Bannatyne Club (Miscellany, iii., 1855). The evidence that the
it to be an original work. David Laing printed extracts for the
volume before it passed into the Britwell Court collection, considered
book is a translation was first given by Sonnenstein Wendt in a
edited by A. F. Mitchell for the Scottish Text Society (1888). See
paper "Om Reformatorerna i Malmö," in Rördam's Ny Kirke-
also Lorimer's Patrick Hamilton.
historiske Samlinger, ii. (Copenhagen, 1860). A complete edition was

reputed author of the Eikon Basilike, was born in 1605 at May-
GAUDEN, JOHN (1605-1662), English bishop and writer,
land, Essex, where his father was vicar of the parish. Educated
at Bury St Edmunds school and at St John's College, Cambridge,
daughter of Sir William Russell of Chippenham, Cambridgeshire,
he took his M.A. degree in 1625/6. He married Elizabeth,
and was tutor at Oxford to two of his wife's brothers. He seems
to have remained at Oxford until 1630, when he became vicar of
mentary party. He was chaplain to Robert Rich, second earl of
Chippenham. His sympathies were at first with the parlia-
Warwick, and preached before the House of Commons in 1640,

In 1641 he was appointed to the rural deanery of Bocking. | to the Archbishop of Canterbury concerning Eikon Basilike (1825): Apparently his views changed as the revolutionary tendency of Bishop Gauden, The Author of the Icon Basilikè (1829); W. G. Broughton, A Letter to a Friend (1826), Additional Reasons the Presbyterian party became more pronounced, for in 1648/9 (1829), supporting the contention in favour of Dr Gauden; Mr he addressed to Lord Fairfax A Religious and Loyal Pro- E. J. L. Scott's introduction to his reprint (1880) of the original testation... against the proceedings of the parliament. Under edition; articles in the Academy, May and June 1883, by Mr C. E. the Commonwealth he faced both ways, keeping his ecclesiastical Classics (1904); and Edward Almack, Bibliography of the King's Doble; another reprint edited by Mr Edward Almack for the King's preferment, but publishing from time to time pamphlets on behalf Book (1896). This last book contains a summary of the arguments of the Church of England. At the Restoration he was made on either side, a full bibliography of works on the subject, and bishop of Exeter. He immediately began to complain to Hyde, facsimiles of the title pages, with full descriptions of the various earl of Clarendon, of the poverty of the see, and based claims for a extant copies. GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRÉ, CHARLES (1789-1854), French better benefice on a certain secret service, which he explained on the 20th of January 1661 to be the sole invention of the Eikon botanist, was born at Angoulême on the 4th of September 1789. Basilike, The Pourtraicture of his sacred Majestie in his Solitudes He studied pharmacy first in the shop of a brother-in-law at and Sufferings put forth within a few hours after the execution of Cognac, and then under P. J. Robiquet at Paris, where from R. L. Desfontaines and L. C. Richard he acquired a knowledge Charles I. as written by the king himself. To which Clarendon replied that he had been before acquainted with the secret and of botany. In April 1810 he was appointed dispenser in the had often wished he had remained ignorant of it. Gauden military marine, and from July 1811 to the end of 1814 he served was advanced in 1662, not as he had wished to the see of at Antwerp. In 1817 he joined the corvette "Uranie" as pharmaceutical botanist to the circumpolar expedition commanded by D. de Freycinet. The wreck of the vessel on the Falkland Isles, at the close of 1819, deprived him of more than half the botanical collections he had made in various parts of the world. In 1830-1833 he visited Chile, Peru and Brazil, and in 1836-1837 he acted as botanist to "La Bonite" during its circumnavigation of the globe. His theory accounting for the growth of plants by the supposed coalescence of elementary in much controversy with his fellow-botanists, more especially phytons "involved him, during the latter years of his life, C. F. B. de Mirbel. He died in Paris on the 16th of January 1854. Beaupré wrote "Lettres sur l'organographie et la physiologie," Besides accounts of his voyages round the world, GaudichaudArch. de botanique, ii., 1883: "Recherches générales sur l'organographie," &c. (prize essay, 1835), Mém. de l'Académie des Sciences, t. viii. and kindred treatises, with memoirs on the potato-blight, the ledonous plants, and other subjects; and Refutation de toutes les multiplication of bulbous plants, the increase in diameter of dicotyobjections contre les nouveaux principes physiologiques (1852).

Winchester, but to Worcester. He died on the 23rd of May of

the same year.

The evidence in favour of Gauden's authorship rests chiefly on his own assertions and those of his wife (who after his death sent to her son John a narrative of the claim), and on the fact that it was admitted by Clarendon, who sould have had means of being acquainted with the truth. Gauden's letters on the subject are

printed in the appendix to vol. iii. of the Clarendon Papers. The argument is that Gauden had prepared the book to inspire sympathy with the king by a representation of his pious and forgiving disposition, and so to rouse public opinion against his execution. In 1693 further correspondence between Gauden, Clarendon, the duke of York, and Sir Edward Nicholas was published by Mr Arthur North, who had found them among the papers of his sister-in-law, a daughter-in-law of Bishop Gauden; but doubt has been thrown on the authenticity of these papers. Gauden stated that he had begun the book in 1647 and was entirely responsible for it. But it is contended that the work was in existence at Naseby, and testimony to Charles's authorship is brought forward from various witnesses who had seen Charles himself occupied with it at various times during his imprisonment. It is stated that the MS. was delivered by one of the king's agents to Edward Symmons, rector of Raine, near Bocking, and that it was in the handwriting of Oudart, Sir Edward Nicholas's secretary. The internal evidence has, as is usual in such cases, been brought forward as a conclusive argument in favour of both contentions. Doubt was thrown on Charles's authorship in Milton's Eikonoklastes (1649), which was followed almost immediately by a royalist answer, The Princely Pelican. Royall Resolves-Extracted from his Majesty's Divine Meditations, with satisfactory reasons... that his Sacred Person was the only Author of them (1649). The history of the whole controversy, which has been several times renewed, was dealt with in Christopher Wordsworth's tracts in a most exhaustive way. He eloquently advocated Charles's authorship. Since he wrote in 1829, some further evidence has been forthcoming in favour of the Naseby copy. A correspondence relating to the French translation of the work has also come to light among the papers of Sir Edward Nicholas. None of the letters show any doubt that King Charles was the author.

S. R. Gardiner (Hist. of the Great Civil War, iv. 325) regards Mr Doble's articles in the Academy (May and June 1883) as finally disposing of Charles's claim to the authorship, but this is by no means the attitude of other recent writers. If Gauden was the author, he may have incorporated papers, &c., by Charles, who may have corrected the work and thus been joint-author. This theory would reconcile the conflicting evidence, that of those who saw Charles writing parts and read the MS. before publication, and the deliberate statements of Gauden.

See also the article by Richard Hooper in the Dict. Nat. Biog. Christopher Wordsworth, Who wrote Eikon Basilike? two letters addressed to the archbishop of Canterbury (1824), and King Charles the First, the Author of Icon Basilikè (1828); H. J. Todd, A Letter See a note in Archbishop Tenison's handwriting in his copy of the Eikon Basilike preserved at Lambeth Palace, and quoted in Almack's Bibliography, p. 15.

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GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT (1827-1908), French geologist and palaeontologist, was born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 16th of September 1827, and was educated at the college, Stanislas. At the age of twenty-five he made explorations in Cyprus and Greece, residing in the latter country from 1855 to 1860. He then investigated the rich deposit of fossil vertebrata at Pikermi and brought to light a remarkable mammalian fauna, Miocene in age, and intermediate in its forms between European, Asiatic and African types. He also published an account of the geology of the island of Cyprus (Mém. Soc. Géol. de France, 1862). In 1853, while still in Cyprus, he was appointed assistant to A. d'Orbigny, who was the first to hold the chair of palaeontology in the museum of natural history at Paris. In 1872 he succeeded to this important post; in 1882 he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1900 he presided over the meetings of the eighth International Congress of Geology then held in Paris. He died on the 27th of November 1908. He is distinguished for his researches on fossil mammalia, and for the support which his studies have rendered to the theory of evolution.

PUBLICATIONS.-Animaux fossiles et géologie de l'Attique (2 vols., 1862-1867); Cours de paléontologie (1873); Animaux fossiles du Mont Lebéron (1873); Les Enchaînements du monde animal dans primaires, 1883; Fossiles secondaires, 1890); Essai de paléon les temps géologiques (Mammifères Tertiaires, 1878; Fossiles tologie philosophique (1896). Brief memoir with portrait in Geol. Mag. (1903), p. 49. (H. B. W.)

GAUDY, an adjective meaning showy, very bright, gay, especially with a sense of tasteless or vulgar extravagance, of colour or ornament. The accurate origin of the various senses which this word and the substantive "gaud" have taken are somewhat difficult to trace. They are all ultimately to be referred to the Lat. gaudere, to rejoice, gaudium, joy, some of them directly, others to the French derivative gaudir, to rejoice, and O Fr. gaudie. As a noun, in the sense of rejoicing or feast, gaudy" is still used of a commemoration dinner at a college at the university of Oxford. "Gaud," meaning generally a toy, a gay adornment, a piece of showy jewelry, is more specifically applied to larger and more decorative beads in a rosary.

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GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH (1807-1862), Austrian painter, | language, a ship is said to have the weather gage when she is son of the landscape painter Jacob Gauermann (1773-1843), to windward of another, and similarly the lee gage when to was born at Wiesenbach near Gutenstein in Lower Austria leeward of another; in this sense the word is usually spelt "gage," on the 20th of September 1807. It was the intention of his father a spelling which prevails in America for all senses.. that he should devote himseif to agriculture, but the example GAUHATI, a town of British India, in the Kamrup district of an elder brother, who, however, died early, fostered his inclina- of Eastern Bengal and Assam, mainly on the left or south, but tion towards art. Under his father's direction he began studies partly on the right bank of the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1901) in landscape, and he also diligently copied the works of the chief 14,244. It is beautifully situated, with an amphitheatre of masters in animal painting which were contained in the academy wooded hills to the south, but is not very healthy. There are and court library of Vienna. In the summer he made art tours many evidences, such as ancient earthworks and tanks, of its in the districts of Styria, Tirol and Salzburg. Two animal pieces historical importance. During the 17th century it was taken which he exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition of 1824 were regarded and retaken by Mahommedans and Ahoms eight times in fifty as remarkable productions for his years, and led to his receiving years, but in 1681 it became the residence of the Ahom governor commissions in 1825 and 1826 from Prince Metternich and of lower Assam, and in 1786 the capital of the Ahom raja. On Caraman, the French ambassador. His reputation was greatly the cession of Assam to the British in 1826 it was made the seat increased by his picture "The Storm," exhibited in 1829, and of the British administration of Assam, and so continued till from that time his works were much sought after and obtained 1874, when the headquarters were removed to Shillong in the correspondingly high prices. His "Field Labourer" was regarded Khasi hills, 67 m. distant, with .which Gauhati is connected by many as the most noteworthy picture in the Vienna exhibition by an excellent cart-road. Two much-frequented places of of 1834, and his numerous animal pieces have entitled him to a Hindu pilgrimage are situated in the immediate vicinity, the place in the first rank of painters of that class of subjects. The temple of Kamakhya on a hill 2 m. west of the town, and the peculiarity of his pictures is the representation of human and rocky island of Umananda in the mid-channel of the Brahmaanimal figures in connexion with appropriate landscapes and in putra. Gauhati is still the headquarters of the district and of characteristic situations so as to manifest nature as a living the Brahmaputra Valley division, though no longer a military whole, and he particularly excels in depicting the free life of cantonment. It is the river terminus of a section of the Assamanimals in wild mountain scenery. Along with great mastery Bengal railway. There are a second-grade college, a government of the technicalities of his art, his works exhibit patient and keen high school, a law class and a training school for masters. observation, free and correct handling of details, and bold and Gauhati is an important centre of river trade, and the largest clear colouring. He died at Vienna on the 7th of July 1862. seat of commerce in Assam. Cotton-ginning, flour-milling, and an export trade in mustard seed, cotton, silk and forest produce are carried on. Gauhati suffered very severely from the earthquake of the 12th of June 1897.

Many of his pictures have been engraved, and after his death a selection of fifty-three of his works was prepared for this purpose by the Austrian Kunstverein (Art Union).

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GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, gallon), a standard of measurement, and also the name given to various instruments and appliances by which measurement is effected. The word seems to have been primarily used in connexion with the process of ascertaining the contents of wine casks; the name gauger is still applied to certain custom-house officials in the United States, and in Scotland it means an exciseman. Thence it was extended to other measurements, and used of the instruments used in making them or of the standards to which they were referred. In the mechanical arts gauges are employed in great variety to enable the workmen to ascertain whether the object he is making is of the proper dimensions (see TOOL), and similar gauges of various forms are employed to ascertain and to specify the sizes of manufactured articles such as wire and screws. A rain gauge is an apparatus for measuring the amount of the rainfall at any locality, and a wind gauge indicates the pressure and force of the wind. The boilers of steam engines are provided with a water gauge and a steam or pressure gauge. The purpose of the former is to enable the attendant to see whether or not there is a sufficient quantity of water in the boiler. It consists of two cocks or taps communicating with the interior, one being placed at the lowest point to which it is permissible for the water to fall, and the other at the point above which it should not rise; a glass tube connects the two cocks, and when they are both open the water in this stands at the same level as in the boiler. The steam gauge shows the pressure of the steam in the boiler. One of the commonest forms, known as the Bourdon gauge, depends on the fact that a curved tube tends to straighten itself if the pressure within it is greater than that outside it. This gauge therefore consists of a curved or coiled tube of elastic material, and preferably of elliptic section, connected with the boiler and arranged with a multiplying gear so that its bending or unbending actuates a pointer moving over a graduated scale. If the pressure within the tube is less than that outside it, the tube tends to bend or coil itself up further; with a pointer arranged as before, the gauge then becomes a vacuum gauge, indicating how far the pressure in the vessel to which it is attached is below that of the atmosphere. In railway engineering the gauge of a line the distance between the two rails (see RAILWAY). In nautical

GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855- ), American artist, was born in Jersey City, New Jersey, on the 31st of March 1855. He was a pupil of J. G. Brown and L. E. Wilmarth, and he became a painter of military pictures, portraying incidents of the American Civil War. He was elected an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1880, and in 1882 a full academician, and in the latter year became a member of the Society of American Artists. His important works include: "Charging the Battery," "News from Home," "Cold Comfort on the Outpost,' ,"" Silenced," " ," "On the Look-out," and "Guerillas returning from a Raid." GAUL. the modern form of the Roman Gallia, the name of the two chief districts known to the Romans as inhabited by Celtic-speaking peoples, (a) Gallia Cisalpina (or Cilerior, "Hither "), i.e. north Italy between Alps and Apennines and (b) the far more important Gallia Transalpina (or Ulterior, "Further "), usually called Gallia (Gaul) simply, the land bounded by the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, the Atlantic, the Rhine, i.e. modern France and Belgium with parts of Holland, Germany and Switzerland. The Greek form of Gallia was laλaría, but Galatia in Latin denoted another Celtic region in central Asia Minor, sometimes styled Gallograccia.

(a) Gallia Cisalpina was mainly conquered by Rome by 222 B.C.; later it adopted Roman civilization; about 42 B.C.' it was united with Italy and its subsequent history is merged in that of the peninsula. Its chief distinctions are that during the later Republic and earlier Empire it yielded excellent soldiers, and thus much aided the success of Caesar against Pompey and of Octavian against Antony, and that it gave Rome the poet Virgil (by origin a Celt), the historian Livy, the lyrist Catullus, Cornelius Nepos, the elder and the younger Pliny and other distinguished writers.

(b) Gaul proper first enters ancient history when the Greek colony of Massilia was founded (?600 B.C.). Roman armies began to enter it about 218 B.C. In 121 B.C. the coast from When Cisalpine Gaul became completely Romanized, it was often known as "Gallia Togata," while the Province was dis"Gallia Bracata (bracae, incorrectly braccae, tinguished as "trousers"), from the long trousers worn by the inhabitants, and the rest of Gaul as "Gallia Comata," from the inhabitants wearing their hair long.

Montpellier to the Pyrenées (i.e. all that was not Massiliot) with | tion spread, the results were somewhat disappointing. Trade its port of Narbo (mod. Narbonne) and its trade route by Toulouse to the Atlantic, was formed into the province of Gallia Narbonensis and Narbo itself into a Roman municipality. Commercial motives prompted the step, and Roman traders and land speculators speedily flocked in. Gradually the province was extended north of Massilia, up the Rhone, while the Greek town itself became weak and dependent on Rome.

It is not, however, until the middle of the 1st century B.C. that we have any detailed knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul. The earliest account is that contained in the Commentaries of Julius Caesar. According to this authority, Gaul was at that time divided among three peoples, more or less distinct from one another, the Aquitani, the Gauls, who called themselves Celts, and the Belgae. The first of these extended from the Pyrenees to the Garumna (Garonne); the second, from that river to the Sequana (Seine) and its chief tributary the Matrona (Marne), reaching eastward presumably as far as the Rhenus (Rhine); and the third, from this bounding line to the mouth of the last-named river, thus bordering on the Germans. By implication Caesar recognizes as a fourth division the province of Gallia Narbonensis. By far the greater part of the country was a plain watered by numerous rivers, the chief of which have already been mentioned, with the exception of its great central stream, the Liger or Ligeris (Loire). Its principal mountain ranges were Cebenna or Gebenna (Cévennes) in the south, and Jura, with its continuation Vosegus or Vogesus (Vosges), in the east. The tribes inhabiting Gaul in Caesar's time, and belonging to one or other of the three races distinguished by him, were numerous. Prominent among them, and dwelling in the division occupied by the Celts, were the Helvetii, the Sequani and the Aedui, in the basins of the Rhodanus and its tributary the Arar (Saône), who, he says, were reckoned the three most powerful nations in all Gaul; the Arverni in the mountains of Cebenna; the Senones and Carnutes in the basin of the Liger; the Veneti and other Armorican tribes between the mouths of the Liger and Sequana. The Nervii, Bellovaci, Suessiones, Remi, Morini, Menapii and Aduatuci were Belgic tribes; the Tarbelli and others were Aquitani; while the Allobroges inhabited the north of the Provincia, having been conquered in 121 B.C. The ethnological divisions thus set forth by Caesar have been much discussed (see CELT, and articles on the chief tribes).

The Gallic Wars (58-51) of Caesar (q.v.) added all the rest of Gaul, north-west of the Cévennes, to the Rhine and the Ocean, and in 49 also annexed Massilia. All Gaul was now Roman territory. Now the second period of her history opens; it remained for Roman territory to become romanized.

Caesar had no time to organize his conquest; this work was left to Augustus. As settled by him, and in part perhaps also by his successor Tiberius, it fell into the following five administrative areas.

(i) Narbonensis, that is, the land between Alps, sea and Cévennes, extending up the Rhone to Vienne, was as Augustus found it, distinct in many ways from the rest of Gaul. By nature it is a sun-steeped southern region, the home of the vine and olive, of the minstrelsy of the Provençal and the exuberance of Tartarin, distinct from the colder and more sober north. By history it had already (in the time of Augustus) been Roman for from 80 to 100 years and was familiar with Roman ways. It was ready to be Italianized and it was civilized enough to need no garrison. Accordingly, it was henceforward governed by a proconsul (appointed by the senate) and freed from the burden of troops, while its local government was assimilated to that of Italy. The old Celtic tribes were broken up: instead, municipalities of Roman citizens were founded to rule their territories. Thus the Allobroges now disappear and the colonia of Vienna takes their place: the Volcae vanish and we find Nemausus (Nimes). Thus thrown into Italian fashion, the province took rapidly to Italian ways. By A.D. 70 it was " Italia verius quam provincia" (Pliny). The Gauls obviously had a natural bias towards the Italian civilization, and there soon became no difference between Italy and southern Gaul. But though educa

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flourished; the corporations of bargemen and the like on the Rhone made money; the many towns grew rich and could afford splendid public buildings. But no great writer and no great administrator came from Narbonensis; itinerant lecturers and journalists alone were produced in plenty, and at times minor poets. (ii.-iv.) Across the Cévennes lay Caesar's conquests, Atlantic in climate, new to Roman ways. The whole area, often collectively styled “ Gallia Comata," often " Tres Provinciae," was divided into three provinces, each under a legatus pro praetore appointed by the emperor, with a common capital at Lugudunum (Lyons). The three provinces were: Aquitania, reaching from the Pyrenees almost to the Loire; Lugudunensis, the land between Loire and Seine, reaching from Brittany in the west to Lyons in the south-east; and Belgica in the north. The boundaries, it will be observed, were wholly artificial. Here also it was found possible to dispense with garrisons, not because the provinces were as peaceful as Narbonensis, but because the Rhine army was close at hand. As befitted an unromanized region, the local government was unlike that of Italy or Narbonensis. Roman municipalities were not indeed unknown, but very few: the local authorities were the magistrates of the old tribal districts. Local autonomy was here carried to an extreme. But the policy succeeded. The Gauls of the Three Provinces, or some of them, revolted in A.D. 21 under Florus and Sacrovir, in 68 under Vindex, and in 70 under Classicus and Tutor (see CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS). But all five leaders were romanized nobles, with Roman names and Roman citizenship, and their risings were directed rather against the Roman government than the Roman empire. In general, the Gauls of these provinces accepted Roman civilization more or less rapidly, and in due course became hardly distinguishable from the Italian. In particular, they eagerly accepted the worship of " Augustus and Rome," devised by the first emperor as a bond of state religion connecting the provinces with Rome. Each August, despite the heat, representatives from the 60 (or 64) tribes of Gallia Comata met at Lyons, elected a priest," sacerdos ad aram Augusti et Romae," and held games. The post of representative, and still more that of priest, was eagerly coveted and provided a scope for the ambitions which despotism usually crushes. It agrees with the vigorous development of this worship that the Three Provinces, though romanized, retained their own local feeling. Even in the 3rd century the cult of Celtic deities (Hercules Magusanus, Deusoniensis, &c.) were revived, the Celtic leuga reintroduced instead of the Roman mile on official milestones, and a brief effort made to establish an independent, though romanized, Gaul under Postumus and his short-lived successors (A.D. 259-273). Not only was the area too large and strong to lose its individuality: it was also too rural and too far from the Mediterranean to be romanized as fully and quickly as Narbonensis. It is even probable that Celtic was spoken in forest districts into the 4th century A.D. Town life, however, grew. The chefs-lieux of the tribes became practically, though not officially, municipalities, and many of these towns reached considerable size and magnificence of public buildings. But they attest their tribal relations by their appellations, which are commonly drawn from the name of the tribe and not of the town itself. Thus the capitals of the Remi and Parisii were actually Durocortorum and Lutetia: the appellations in use were Remis or Remus, Parisiis or Parisiusthese forms being indeclinable nouns formed from a sort of locative of the tribe names. Literature also flourished. In the latest empire Ausonius, Symmachus, Apollinaris, Sidonius and other Gaulish writers, chiefly of Gallia Comata, kept alive the classical literary tradition, not only for Gaul but for the world.

(v.) The fifth division of Gaul was the Rhenish military frontier. Augustus had planned the conquest of Germany up to the Elbe. His plans were foiled by the courage of Arminius and the inability of the Roman exchequer to pay a larger army. Instead, his successor Tiberius organized the Rhine frontier in two military districts. The northern one was the valley of the Meuse and that of the Rhine to a point just south of Bonn: the southern was the rest of the Rhine valley to Switzerland. Each

district was garrisoned at first by four, later by fewer legions, | Warminster Beds which were disposed at various times in some of the following Upper Gault fortresses. Vetera (Xanten), Novaesium (Neuss), Bonne (Bonn), Moguntiacum (Mainz), Argentorate (Strassburg) and Vindonissa Lower Gault (Windisch in Switzerland). At first the districts were purely military, were called, after the garrisons, " exercitus Germanicus superior" (south) and “inferior" (north). Later one or two municipalities were founded-Colonia Agrippinensis at Cologne (A.D 51), Colonia Augusta Treverorum at Trier (date uncertain), Colonia Ulpia Traiana outside Vetera-and about 80-90 A.D. the

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two " Exercitus were turned into the two provinces of Upper and Lower Germany. The armies in these districts formed the defence of Gaul against German invaders. They also helped to keep Gaul itself in order and their presence explains why the four provinces of Gaul proper contained no troops.

These provincial divisions were modified by Diocletian but without seriously affecting the life of Gaul. The whole country, Indeed, continued Roman and fairly safe from barbarian invasions till after 400. In 407 a multitude of Franks, Vandals, &c., burst over Gaul. Roman rule practically ceased and the three kingdoms of the Visigoths, Burgundians and Franks began to form. There were still a Roman general and Roman troops when Attila was defeated in the campi Catalaunici in A.D 451, but the general, Aetius, was "the last of the Romans," and in 486 Clovis the Frank ended the last vestige of Roman rule in Gaul.

For Roman antiquities in Gaul see, beside articles on the modern towns (ARLES, Nîmes, Orange, &c.), BIBRACTE, ALESIA, ITIUS PORTUS, AQUEDUCT, ARCHITECTURE, AMPHITHEATRE, &c.; for religion see DRUIDISM; for the famous schools of Autun, Lyons, Toulouse, Nimes, Vienne, Marseilles and Narbonne, see J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (ed 1906-1908), i. pp. 247-250; for the Roman provinces, Th. Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire (trans. 1886), vol. i. chap. iii. See also Desjardins, Géographie historique et administrative de la Gaule romaine (Paris, 1877): Fustel de Coulangès, Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France (Paris, 1877), for Caesar's campaigns, article CAESAR, JULIUS, and works quoted; for coins, art NUMISMATICS and articles in the Numismatische Zeitschrift and Revue numismatique (e.g. Blanchet, 1907. pp. 461 foll.). (F J. H.)

GAULT, in geology, one of the members of the Lower Cretaceous System. The name is still employed provincially in parts of England for a stiff blue clay of any kind; by the earlier writers it was sometimes spelt "Galt " or Golt."

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The formation now known as Gault in England has been

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variously designated Blue Marle," Brick Earth," "Golt Brick Earth " and Oak-tree-soil." In certain parts of the south of England the Gault appears as a well-marked deposit of clay, lying between two sandy formations; the one above came to be known as the "Upper Greensand," the one below being the "Lower Greensand (see GREENSAND). Since the typical clayey Gault is continually taking on a sandy facies as it is traced both horizontally and vertically; and since the fossils of the Upper Greensand and Gault are inseparably related, it has been proposed by A. J. Jukes-Browne that these two series of beds should be regarded as the arenaceous and argillaceous phases of a single formation, to which he has given the name "Selbornian (from the village of Selborne where the beds are well developed). Lithologically, then, the Selbornian includes the blue and grey clays and marls of the Gault proper; the glauconitic sands of the Upper Greensand, and their local equivalent, the "malm," "malm rock" or "firestone," which in places passes into the micaceous sandstone containing sponge spicules and globules of silica, the counterpart of the rock called "gaize" on the same horizon in northern France. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and parts of Norfolk the Selbornian is represented by the Red Chalk. The malm is a ferruginous siliceous rock, the silica being mainly in the colloidal condition in the form of globules and sponge spicules; some quartz grains, mica and glauconite are usually present along with from 2 to 25% of calcareous matter. Chert-bands and nodules are common in the Upper Greensand of certain districts; and calcareous concretions, locally recognized as cowstones (Lyme Regis), doggers or buhrstones, are not infrequent.

The principal divisions of the Selbornian stage with their characteristic zonal fossils are as follows:

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The Gault (with Upper Greensand) crops out all round the Wealden area; it extends beneath the London basin and reappears from Hills to near Tring. In the south of England the Gault clay is beneath the northern scarp of the Chalk along the foot of the Chiltern fairly constant in the lower part, with the Greensand above; the clay, however, passes into sand as it is followed westward and, as already pointed out, the clay and sand appear to pass into a red sand towards the east, where it rests upon the old Paleozoic axis; chalk towards the north-east. The Gault overlaps the Lower Greenit also overlaps the same formation towards the west about Frome, and thence passes unconformably across the Portlandian beds, Kimeridge Clay, Corallian beds and Oxford Clay; in south Dorsetshire

it rests upon the Wealden Series. The Gault (with Upper Greensand) passes on to the Jurassic and Rhaetic rocks near Axmouth, and oversteps farther westward, in the Haldon Hills, on to the Permian. A large outlier occurs on the Blackdown Hills of Devonshire. Good localities for fossils are Folkestone-where many of the shells are sle of Wight, the Blackdown and Haldon Hills, Warminster, preserved with their original pearly nacre,-Burnham, Merstham, Hunstanton and Speeton, Black Venn near Lyme Regis, and Devizes (malmstone and gaize). The beds are well developed in the vale of Wardour, and in the Isle of Wight; the Gault forms the so-called "blue slipper "at Ventnor which has been the cause of the landslip or undercliff.

The Gault of north France is very similar to that in the south of England, but the French term Albien includes only a portion of the Selbornian formation. The Gault of north-west Germany embraces beds that would be classed as Albien and Aptien by French authors; it comprises the "Flammenmergel "-a pale siliceous marl shot with flame-shaped darker patches-a clay with Belemnites minimus, and the "Gargasmergel" (Aptian). In the Diester and Teutoberger Wald, and in the region of Halberstadt, the clays and marls are replaced by sandstones, the so-called Gault-Quader. Continental writers usually place the Gault or Albian at the summit of the Lower Cretaceous; while with English geologists the practice is to commence the Upper Cretaceous with this formation. In addition to the fossils already noticed, the following may be mentioned: Acanthoceras Desmoceras Beaudanti, Hoplites splendens, Hamites, Scaphites, Turrilites, Aporrhais retusa, Trigonia aliforme, also Ichthyosaurus and Ornithocheirus (Pterodactyl). From the clays, bricks and tiles are made at Burham, Barnwell, Dunton Green, Arlesey, Hitchin, &c. The cherts in the Greensand portion are used for road metal, and in the Blackdown Hills, for scythe stones; hearthstone is obtained about Merstham; phosphatic nodules occur at several horizons.

See CRETACEOUS SYSTEM; ALBIAN; APTIAN; also A. J. JukesBrowne, "The Gault and Upper Greensand of England," vol. i., Cretaceous Rocks of Britain; Mem. Geol. Survey, 1900.

GAUNTLET (a diminutive of the Fr. gant, glove), a large form of glove, and especially the steel-plated glove of medieval armour. Το run the gauntlet," i.e. to run between two rows of men who, armed with sticks, rope-ends or other weapons, beat and strike at the person so running, was formerly a punishment for military and naval offences. It was abolished in the Prussian army by Scharnhorst. As a method of torturing prisoners, it was employed among the North American Indians. "Gauntlet "(earlier "gantlet ") in this expression is a corruption of "gantlope," from a Swedish gatlope, from gata, lane, and lopp, a course (cf. Ger. gassenlaufen, to run the gauntlet). According to the New English Dictionary the word became familiar in England at the time of the Thirty Years' War.

GAUR, or LAKHNAUTI, a ruined city of British India, in Malda district of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The ruins are situated about 8 m. to the south of English Bazar, the civil station of the district of Malda, and on the eastern bank of the Bhagirathi, an old channel of the Ganges. It is said to have been founded by Lakshman, and its most ancient name was Lakshmanavati, corrupted into Lakhnauti. Its known history begins with its conquest in A.D. 1198 by the Mahommedans, who retained it as the chief seat of their power in Bengal for more than three centuries. When the Afghan kings of Bengal established their independence, they transferred their seat of government (about 1350) to Pandua (q.v.), also in Malda district, and to build their new capital they plundered Gaur of every monument that could be removed. When Pandua was in its turn deserted (A.D. 1453), Gaur once more became the capital under the

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