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On the other side, the last divisions of Hill's and Ewell's corps
formed up opposite the new Federal position, and Longstreet's
corps prepared to attack its left.

Owing, however, to misunderstandings between Lee and Longstreet (q.v.), the Confederates did not attack early on the morning of the 2nd, so that Meade's army had plenty of time to make its dispositions. The Federal line at this time occupied the horse-shoe ridge, the right of which was formed by Culp's Hill, and the centre by the Cemetery hill, whence the left wing stretched southward, the III. corps on the left, however, being thrown forward considerably. The XII. held Culp's, the remnant of the I. and XI. the Cemetery hills. On the left was the II., and in its advanced position-the famous "Salient "-the III., soon to be supported by the V.; the VI., with the reserve artillery, formed the general reserve. It was late in the day when the Confederate attack was made, and valuable time had been lost, but Longstreet's troops advanced with great spirit. The III.

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corps Salient was the scene of desperate fighting; and the "Peach Orchard" and the "Devil's Den" became as famous as the "Bloody Angle " of Spottsylvania or the "Hornets' Nest" of Shiloh. While the Confederate attack was developing, the important positions of Round Top and Little Round Top were unoccupied by the defenders-an omission which was repaired only in the nick of time by the commanding engineer of the army, General G. K. Warren, who hastily called up troops of the V. corps. The attack of a Confederate division was, after a hard struggle, repulsed, and the Federals retained possession of the Round Tops. The III. corps in the meantime, furiously attacked by troops of Hill's and Longstreet's corps, was steadily pressed back, and the Confederates actually penetrated the main line of the defenders, though for want of support the brigades which achieved this were quickly driven out. Ewell, on the Confederate left, waited for the sound of Longstreet's guns, and thus no attack was made by him until late in the day. Here Culp's Hill was carried with ease by one of Ewell's divisions, most of the Federal XII. corps having been withdrawn to aid in the fight on the other wing; but Early's division was repulsed in its efforts to storm Cemetery Hill, and the two divisions of the centre (one of Hill's, one of Ewell's corps) remained inactive.

to all, but Ewell's men on Culp's Hill, and Longstreet's corps That no decisive success had been obtained by Lee was clear position, which was no longer a compact horsehoe but had been below Round Top, threatened to turn both flanks of the Federal considerably prolonged to the left; and many of the units in the Federal army had been severely handled in the two days' fighting. Meade, however, after discussing the eventuality of a retreat with his corps commanders, made up his mind to hold his ground. Lee now decided to alter his tactics. The broken ground near Round Top offered so many obstacles that he decided not to press Longstreet's attack further. Ewell was to resume his attack on Meade's extreme right, while the decisive blow was to be given in the centre (between Cemetery Hill and Trostle's) by an assault delivered in the Napoleonic manner by the fresh troops of Pickett's division (Longstreet's corps). Meade, however, was not disposed to resign Culp's Hill, and with it the command of the Federal line of retreat, to Ewell, and at early dawn on the 3rd a division of the XII. corps, well supported by artillery, opened the Federal counter-attack; the Confederates made a strenuous resistance, but after four hours' hard fighting the other division of the XII. corps, and a brigade of the VI., intervened with decisive effect, and the Confederates were driven off the hill. The defeat of Ewell did not, however, cause Lee to alter his plans. Pickett's division was to lead in the great assault, supported by part of Hill's corps (the latter, however, had already been engaged). Colonel E. P. Alexander, Longstreet's chief of artillery, formed up one long line of seventy-five guns, and sixtyfive guns of Hill's corps came into action on his left. To the converging fire of these 140 guns the Federals, cramped for space, could only oppose seventy-seven. The attacking troops formed up before 9 A.M., yet it was long before Longstreet could bring himself to order the advance, upon which so much depended, and it was not till about 1 P.M. that the guns at last opened fire to prepare the grand attack. The Federal artillery promptly replied, but after thirty minutes' cannonade its commander, Gen. H. J. Hunt, ordered his batteries to cease fire in order to reserve their ammunition to meet the infantry attack. Ten minutes later Pickett asked and received permission to advance, and the infantry moved forward to cross the 1800 yds. which separated them from the Federal line. Their own artillery was short of ammunition, the projectiles of that day were not sufficiently effective to cover the advance at long ranges, and thus the Confederates, as they came closer to the enemy, met a tremendous fire of unshaken infantry and artillery.

The charge of Pickett's division is one of the most famous episodes of military history. In the teeth of an appalling fire from the rifles of the defending infantry, who were well sheltered, and from the guns which Hunt had reserved for the crisis, the Meade's first line. But the strain was too great for the supportVirginian regiments pressed on, and with a final effort broke ing brigades, and Pickett was left without assistance. Hancock made a fierce counterstroke, and the remnant of the Confederates retreated. Of Pickett's own division over three-quarters, 3393 officers and men out of 4500, were left on the field, two of his three brigadiers were killed and the third wounded, and of fifteen regimental commanders ten were killed and five wounded. One regiment lost 90% of its numbers. The failure of this assault practically ended the battle; but Lee's line was so formidable that Meade did not in his turn send forward the Army of the Potomac. By the morning of the 5th of July Lee's army was in full retreat for Virginia. He had lost about 30,000 men in killed, wounded and missing out of a total force of perhaps 75,000. Meade's losses were over 23,000 out of about 82,000 on the field. The main body of the cavalry on both sides was absent from the field, but a determined cavalry action was fought on the 3rd of July between.the Confederate cavalry under J. E. B. Stuart and that of the Federals under D. McM. Gregg some miles E. of the battlefield, and other Federal cavalry made a dashing charge in the broken ground south-west of Round Top on the third day, inflicting thereby, though at great loss to them selves, a temporary check on the right wing of Longstreet's infantry,

GEULINCX, ARNOLD (1624-1669), Belgian philosopher, was born at Antwerp on the 31st of January 1624. He studied philosophy and medicine at the university of Louvain, where he remained as a lecturer for several years. Having given offence by his unorthodox views, he left Louvain, and took refuge in Leiden, where he appears to have been in the utmost distress. He entered the Protestant Church, and in 1663, through the influence of his friend Abraham Heidanus, who had assisted him in his greatest need, he obtained a poorly paid lectureship at the university. He died at Leiden in November 1669. His most important works were published posthumously. The Metaphysica vera (1691), and the Two σeaurov, sive Ethica (under the pseudonym "Philaretus," 1675), are the works by which he is chiefly known. Mention may also be made of Physica vera (1688), Logica restituta (1662) and Annotata in Principia philosophiae R. Cartesii (1691). Geulinex principally deals with the question, left in an obscure and unsatisfactory state by Descartes, of the relation between soul and body. Whereas Descartes made the union between them a violent collocation, Geulincx practically called it a miracle. Extension and thought, the essences of corporeal and spiritual natures, are absolutely distinct, and cannot act upon one another. External facts are not the causes of mental states, nor are mental states the causes of physical facts. So far as the physical universe is concerned, we are merely spectators; the only action that remains for us is contemplation. The influence we seem to exercise over bodies by will is only apparent; volition and action only accompany one another. Since true activity consists in knowing what one does and how one does it, I cannot be the author of any state of which I am unconscious; I am not conscious of the mechanism by which bodily motion is produced, hence I am not the author of bodily motion ("Quod nescis quomodo fiat, id non facis "). Body and mind are like two clocks which act together, because both have been set together by God. A physical occurrence is but the occasion (opportunity, occasional cause) on which God excites in me a corresponding mental state; the exercise of my will is the occasion on which God moves my body. Every operation in which mind and matter are both concerned is an effect of neither, but the direct act of God. Geulincx was thus the first definitely to systematize the theory called Occasionalism, which had already been propounded by Gérauld de Cordemoy (d. 1684), a Parisian lawyer, and Louis de la Forge, a physician of Saumur. But the principles on which the theory was founded compelled a further advance. God, who is the cause of the concomitance of bodily and mental facts, is in truth the sole cause in the universe. No fact contains in itself the ground of any other; the existence of the facts is due to God, their sequence and coexistence are also due to him. He is the ground of all that is. My desires, volitions and thoughts are thus the desires, volitions and thoughts of God. Apart from God, the finite being has no reality, and we only have the idea of it from God. Descartes had left untouched, or nearly so, the difficult problem of the relation between the universal element or thought and the particular desires or inclinations. All these are regarded by Geulincx as modes of the divine thought and action, and accordingly the end of human endeavour is the end of the divine will or the realization of reason. The love of right reason is the supreme virtue, whence flow the cardinal virtues, diligence, obedience, justice and humility. Since it is impossible for us to make any alteration in the world of matter, all we can do is to submit. Chief of the cardinal virtues is humility, a confession of our own helplessness and submission to God. Geulincx's idea of life is "a resigned optimism." Geulincx carried out to their extreme consequences the irreconcilable elements in the Cartesian metaphysics, and his works have the peculiar value attaching to the vigorous development of a one-sided principle. The abrupt contradictions to which such development leads of necessity compels revision of the principle itself. He was thus important as the precursor of Malebranche and Spinoza.

Edition of his philosophical works by J. P. N. Land (1891-1893, for which a recently discovered MS. was consulted); see also the

same editor's Arnold Geulinex und seine Philosophie (1895), and article (translated) in Mind, xvi. 223 seq.; V. van der Haeghen, Geulincx. Élude sur sa vie, sa philosophie, et ses ouvrages (Ghent, 1886); E. Grimm, A. Geulinex Erkenntnisstheorie und Occasiona lismus (1875); E. Pfleiderer, A. G. als Hauptvertreter der okkasiona listischen Metaphysik und Ethik (1882); G. Samtleben, Geulinex, Philos. (Eng. trans., 1895), ch. iii.; G. Monchamp, Hist. du Cartesiaein Vorgänger Spinozas (1885); also Falckenberg. Hist of Mod. nisme en Belgique (Brussels, 1886); H. Höffding, Hist. of Mod. Philos. (Eng. trans., 1900), i. 245.

GEUM, in botany, a genus of hardy perennial herbs (natural order Rosaceae) containing about thirty species, widely distributed in temperate and arctic regions. The erect flowering shoots spring from a cluster of radical leaves, which are deeply cut or lobed, the largest division being at the top of the leaf. The flowers are borne singly on long stalks at the end of the stem or its branches. They are white, yellow or red in colour, and shallowly cup-shaped. The fruit consists of a number of dry achenes, each of which bears a hook formed from the persistent lower portion of the style, and admirably adapted for ensuring distribution. Two species occur in Britain under the popular name "avens." G. urbanum is a very common hedge-bank plant with small yellow flowers; G. rivale (water avens) is a rarer plant found by streams, and has larger yellow flowers an inch or more across. The species are easy to cultivate and well adapted for borders or the rock-garden. They are propagated by seeds or by division. The most popular garden species are G. chiloense and its varieties, G. coccineum and G. montanum.

GEVELSBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 6 m. S.W. from Hagen, on the railway to Düsseldorf. It has two churches, schools and a hospital, and considerable manufactures of cutlery. Pop, (1905) 15,838

GEX, a town of eastern France, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Ain, 10 m. N.W. of Geneva and 3 m. from the Swiss frontier. Pop. (1906) town, 1385; commune, 2727. The town is beautifully situated 2000 ft. above sea-level at the base of the most easterly and highest chain of the Jura. It is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance, and carries on considerable trade in wine, cheese and other provisions, chiefly with Geneva. It gives its name to the old Pays de Gex, situated between the Alps and the Jura, which was at various times under the protection of the Swiss, the Genevese and the counts of Savoy, until in 1601 it came into the possession of France, retaining, however, until the Revolution its old independent jurisdiction, with Gex as its chief town. The Pays de Gex is isolated by the Jura from the rest of French territory, and comes within the circumscription of the Swiss customs, certain restrictions being imposed on its products by the French customs.

GEYSER, GEISER, or GEISIR, a natural spring or fountain which discharges into the air, at more or less regular intervals of time, a column of heated water and steam; it may consequently be regarded as an intermittent hot spring. The word is the Icelandic geysir, gusher or rager, from the verb geysa, a derivative of gjosa, to gush. In native usage it is the proper name of the Great Geyser, and not an appellative-the general term hver, a hot spring, making the nearest approach to the European sense of the word (see Cleasby and Vigfusson, Icelandic English Dictionary, s.v.).

Any hot spring capable of depositing siliceous material by the evaporation of its water may in course of time transform itself into a geyser, a tube being gradually built up as the level of the basin is raised, much in the same manner as a volcanic cone is produced. Every geyser continuing to deposit siliceous material is preparing its own destruction; for as soon as the tube becomes deep enough to contain a column of water sufficiently heavy to prevent the lower strata attaining their boiling points, the whole mechanism is deranged. The deposition of the sinter is due in part to the cooling and evaporation of the siliceous waters, and in part to the presence of living algae. In geyser districts it is easy to find thermal springs busy with the construction of the tube; warm pools, or laugs, as the Icelanders call them, on the top of siliceous mounds, with the mouth of

the shaft still open in the middle; and dry basins from which the water has receded with their shafts now choked with rubbish. Geysers exist at the present time in many volcanic regions, as in the Malay Archipelago, Japan and South America; but the three localities where they attain their highest development are Iceland, New Zealand and the Yellowstone Park, U.S.A. The very name by which we call them indicates the historical priority of the Iceland group.

The Iceland geysers, mentioned by Saxo Grammaticus, are situated about 30 m. N.W. of Hecla, in a broad valley at the foot of a range of hills from 300 to 400 ft. in height. Within a circuit of about 2 m., upwards of one hundred hot springs may be counted, varying greatly both in character and dimensions. The Great Geyser in its calm periods appears as a circular pool about 60 ft. in diameter and 4 ft. in depth, occupying a basin on the summit of a mound of siliceous concretion; and in the centre of the basin is a shaft, about 10 ft. in diameter and 70 ft. in depth, lined with the same siliceous material. The clear sea-green water flows over the eastern rim of the basin in little runnels. On the surface it has a temperature of from 76° to 89° C., or from 168° to 188° F. Within the shaft there is of course a continual shifting both of the average temperature of the column and of the relative temperatures of the several strata. The results of the observations of Bunsen and A. L. O. Descloizeaux in 1847 were as follows (cf. Pogg. Ann., vol. 72 and Comptes rendus, vol. 19): About three hours after a great eruption on July 6, the temperature 6 metres from the bottom of the shaft was 121.6° C.; at 9.50 metres, 121.1°; at 16-30 metres, 109° (?); and at 19.70 metres, 95° (?). About nine hours after a great eruption on July 6, at about 0-3 metres from the bottom, it was 123°; at 4.8 metres it was 122-7°; at 9-6 metres, 113°; at 14-4 metres, 85.8°; at 19.2 metres, 82-6°. On the 7th, there having been no eruption since the previous forenoon, the temperature at the bottom was 127-5°; at 5 metres from the bottom, 123°; at 9 metres, 120-4; at 14.75 metres, 106.4°; and at 19 metres, 55°. About three hours after a small eruption, which took place at forty minutes past three o'clock in the afternoon of the 7th, the temperature at the bottom was 126.5; at 6-85 metres up it was 121.8°; at 14.75 metres, 110°; and at 19 metres, 55°. Thus, continues Bunsen, it is evident that the temperature of the column diminishes from the bottom upwards; that, leaving out of view small irregularities, the temperature in all parts of the column is found to be steadily on the increase in proportion to the time that has elapsed since the previous eruption; that even a few minutes before the great eruption the temperature at no point of the water column reached the boiling point corresponding to the atmospheric pressure at that part; and finally, that the temperature about half-way up the shaft made the nearest approach to the appropriate boiling point, and that this approach was closer in proportion as an eruption was at hand. The Great Geyser has varied very much in the nature and frequency of its eruptions since it began to be observed. In 1809 and 1810, according to Sir W. J. Hooker and Sir George S. Mackenzie, its columns were 100 or 90 ft. high, and rose at intervals of 30 hours, while, according to Henderson, in 1815 the intervals were of 6 hours and the altitude from 80 to 150 ft. About 100 paces from the Great Geyser is the Strokkr or churn, which was first described by Stanlay in 1789. The shaft in this case is about 44 ft. deep, and, instead of being cylindrical, is funnel-shaped, having a width of about 8 ft. at the mouth, but contracting to about 10 in. near the centre. By casting stones or turf into the shaft so as to stopper the narrow neck, eruptions can be accelerated, and they often exceed in magnitude those of the Great Geyser itself. During quiescence the column of water fills only the lower part of the shaft, its surface usually lying from 9 to 12 ft. below the level of the soil. Unlike that of the Great Geyser, it is always in ebullition, and its temperature is subject to comparatively slight differences. On the 8th of July 1847 Bunsen found the temperature at the bottom 112.9° C.; at 3 metres from the bottom, 111-4; and at 6 metres, 108°; the whole depth of water was on that occasion 10-15 metres. On the 6th, at 2.90 metres from the bottom it was 114.2°; and

at 6-20 metres, 109-3°. On the 10th, at 0.35 metres from the bottom, the reading gave 113.9°; at 4-65 metres, 113.7°; and at 8.85 metres, 99.9°.

The great geyser-district of New Zealand is situated in the south of the province of Auckland in or near the upper basin of the Waikato river, to the N.E. of Lake Taupo. The scene presented in various parts of the districts is far more striking and beautiful than anything of the same kind to be found in Iceland, but this is due not so much to the grandeur of the geysers proper as to the bewildering profusion of boiling springs, steam-jets and mud-volcanoes, and to the fantastic effects produced on the rocks by the siliceous deposits and by the action of the boiling water. In about 1880 the geysers were no longer active, and this condition prevailed until the Tarawera eruption of 1886, when seven gigantic geysers came into existence; water, steam, mud and stones were discharged to a height of 600 to 800 ft. for a period of about four hours, when quieter conditions set in. Waikite near Lake Rotorua throws the column to a height of 30 or 35 ft.

[graphic]

FIG. I.

In the Yellowstone National Park, in the north-west corner of Wyoming, the various phenomena of the geysers can be observed on the most portentous scale. The geysers proper are about one hundred in number; the non-eruptive hot springs are much more numerous, there being more than 3000. The dimensions and activity of several of the geysers render those of Iceland and New Zealand almost insignificant in comparison. The principal groups are situated along the course of that tributary of the Upper Madison which bears the name of Fire Hole River. Many of the individual geysers have very distinctive characteristics in the form and colour of the mound, in the style of the eruption and in the shape of the column. The "Giantess "lifts the main column to a height of only 50 or 60 ft., but shoots a thin spire to no less than 250 ft. The "Castle" varies in height from 10 or 15 to 250 ft.; and on the occasions of greatest effort the noise is appalling, and shakes the ground like an earthquake. "Old Faithful" owes its name to the regularity of its action. Its eruptions, which raise the water to a height of 100 or 150 ft., last for about five minutes, and recur every hour or thereabouts. The "Beehive" sometimes attains a height of 219 ft.; and the water, instead of falling back into the basin, is dissipated in spray and vapour. Very various accounts are given of the " Giant." F. V. Hayden saw it playing for an hour and twenty minutes, and reaching a height of 140 ft., and Doane says it continued in action for three hours and a half, and had a maximum of 200 ft.; but at the earl of Dunraven's visit the eruption lasted only a few minutes.

Theory of Geysers.-No satisfactory explanation of the phenomena of geysers was advanced till near the middle of the 19th cen tury, when Bunsen elucidated their nature. Iceland (2nd ed., 1812), submitted a theory Sir George Mackenzie, in his Travels in which partially explained the phenomena met with. "Let us suppose a cavity C (fig. 1), communicating with the pipe PO. filled with boiling water to the height AB, and that the steam above this line is con fined so that it sustains the water to the height P. If we suppose a sudden addition of heat to be applied under the cavity C, a quantity of steam will be produced which, owing to the great pressure, will be the shaking of the ground." He admitted that this could be only evolved in starts, causing the noises like discharges of artillery and a partial explanation of the facts of the case, and that he was unable

FIG. 2.

to account for the frequent and periodical production of the necessary | 1803, and at the close of his preliminary studies at the seminary heat; but he has the credit of hitting on what is certainly the of Blaubeuren entered the university of Tübingen in 1821 as a proximate cause-the sudden evolution of steam. By Bunsen's theory the whole difficulty is solved, as is beautifully demonstrated student of evangelical theology. After passing his final examinaby the artificial geyser designed by J. H. J. Muller of Freiburg tions in 1825, he spent a year in Switzerland, during part of the (g. 2). If the tube ab be filled with water and heated at two points, time acting as companion and secretary to C. von Bonstetten first at a and then at b, the following succession of changes is pro (1745-1832); the year 1827 was spent chiefly in Rome. Reduced. The water at a beginning to boil, the superincumbent column is consequently raised, and the stratum of water which was turning to Württemberg in 1828, he first undertook the duties of on the point of boiling at b being raised to d is there subjected to a repetent or theological tutor in Tübingen, and afterwards accepted diminished pressure; a sudden evolution of steam accordingly a curacy in Stuttgart; but having in 1830 received an appoint. takes place at d, and the superincumbent water is violently ejected.ment in the royal public library at Stuttgart, he thenceforth gave Received in the basin c, the air-cooled water sinks back into the tube: himself exclusively to literature and historical science. His and the temperature of the whole column is consequently lowered; but the under strata of water are naturally those which are least first work on Philo (Philo u. die jüdisch-alexandrinische Theoaffected by the cooling process; the boiling begins again at a, and the sophic, Stuttgart, 1831) was rapidly followed by an elaborate same succession of events is the result (see R. Bunsen, Physikalische biography, in two volumes, of Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav Beobachtungen über die hauptsächlichsten Geisire Islands," Po Adolf, König von Schweden, und seine Zeit, Stuttgart, 1835-1837), Ann., 1847, vol. 72; and Müller, "Über Bunsen's Geysertheorie," ibid., 1850, vol. 79). and by a critical history of primitive Christianity (Kritische Geschichte des Urchristenthums, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1838). Here Girorer had manifested opinions unfavourable to Protestantism, which, however, were not openly avowed until fully developed in his church history (Allgemeine Kirchengeschichte bis Beginn des 14ten Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart, 1841-1846). In the autumn of 1846 he was appointed to the chair of history in the university of Freiburg, where he continued to teach until his death at Carlsbad on the 6th of July 1861. In 1848 he sat as a representative in the Frankfort parliament, where he supported the "High German "party, and in 1853 he publicly went over to the Church of Rome. He was a bitter opponent of Prussia and an ardent controversialist.

Observed. A Calculated. 186° 225°

230°

251°

D

255°

241 249 255°

The principal difference between the artificial and the natural geyser-tube is that in the latter the effect is not necessarily produced by two distinct sources of heat like the two fires of the experimental apparatus, but by the continual influx of heat from the bottom of the shaft, and the differences between the boiling-points of the different parts of the column owing to the different pressures of the superincumbent mass. This may be thus illustrated: AB is the column of water; on the right side the figures represent approximately the boiling-points (Fahr.) calculated according to the ordinary laws, and the figures on the left the actual temperature of the same places. Both gradually increase as we descend, but the relation between the two is very different at different heights. At the top the water is still 39° from its boiling point, and even at the bottom it is 19°; but at D the deficiency is only 4. If, then, the stratum at D be suddenly lifted as high as C, it will be 2 above the boiling-point there, and will consequently expend those 2° in the formation of steam.

259

B

266° 278°

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GEZER (the Kazir of Tethmosis [Thothmes] III.'s list of Palestinian cities and the Gazri of the Amarna tablets), a royal Canaanite city on the boundary of Ephraim, in the maritime plain (Josh. xvi. 3-10), and near the Philistine border (2 Sam. v. 25). It was allotted to the Levites, but its original inhabitants were not driven out until the time of Solomon, when" Pharaoh, king of Egypt' " took the city and gave it as a dowry to his daughter, Solomon's wife (1 Kings ix. 16). Under the form Gazera it is mentioned (1 Macc. iv. 15) as being in the neighbourhood of Emmaus-Nicopolis ('Amwas) and Jamnia (Yebnah). Throughout the history of the Maccabean wars Gezer or Gazara plays the part of an important frontier post. It was first taken from the Syrians by Simon the Asmonean (1 Macc. xiv. 7). Josephus also mentions that the city was "naturally strong (Antiq. viii. 6. 1). The position of Gezer is defined by Jerome (Onomasticon, s.v.) as four Roman miles north (contra septena. trionem) of Nicopolis ('Amwas). This points to the mound of debris called Tell-el-Jesari near the village of Abū Shûsheh. The site is naturally very strong, the town standing on an isolated hill, commanding the western road to Jerusalem just where it begins to enter the mountains of Judea. This identification has been confirmed by the discovery of a series of boundary inscriptions, apparently marking the limit of the city's lands, which have been found cut in rock-outcrops partly surrounding the site. They read in every case man, "the boundary of Gezer," with the name Alkios in Greek, probably that of the governor under whom the inscriptions were cut. The site has been partially excavated by the Palestine Exploration Fund, and an enormous mass of material for the history of Palestine recovered from it, including remains of a pre-Semitic aboriginal race, a remarkably perfect High Place, the castle built by Simon, and other remains of the first importance.

See R. A. S. Macalister's reports in Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement (October 1902 onwards). Also Bible Sidelights from the Mound of Gezer, by the same writer. (R. A. S. M.)

GFRÖRER, AUGUST FRIEDRICH (1803-1861), German bistorian, was born at Calw, Württemberg, on the 5th of March So written, with a medial mem (0) instead of the final (0).

Among his later historical works the most important is the Geschichte der ost- u. westfrankischen Karolinger (Freiburg, 1848); but those on the pseudo-Isidorian Decretals (Untersuchung über Alter, Ursprung, u. Werth der Decretalen des falschen Isidorus, 1848), on the primitive history of mankind (Urgeschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts, 1855), on Hildebrand (Papst Gregorius VII. u. sein Zeitoller, 7 vols., 1859-1861), on the history of the 18th century (Geschichte des 18ten Jahrhunderts, 1862-1873), on German popular rights (Zur Geschichte deutscher Volksrechte im Mittelalter, Basel, 1865-1866) and on Byzantine history (Byzantinische Geschichten, 1872-1874), are also of real value.

GHADAMES, GADAMES or RHADĀMES, a town in an oasis of the same name, in that part of the Sahara which forms part of the Turkish vilayet of Tripoli. It is about 300 m. S.W. of the city of Tripoli and some 10 m. E. of the Algerian frontier. According to Gerhard Rohlfs, the last form given to the word most correctly represents the Arabic pronunciation, but the other forms are more often used in Europe. The streets of the town are narrow and vaulted and have been likened to the bewildering galleries of a coalpit. The roofs are laid out as gardens and preserved for the exclusive use of the women. The Ghadamsi merchants have been known for centuries as keen and adventurous traders, and their agents are to be found in the more important places of the western and central Sudan, such as Kano, Katsena, Kanem, Bornu, Timbuktu, as well as at Ghat and Tripoli. Ghadames itself is the centre of a large number of caravan routes, and in the early part of the 19th century about 30,000 laden camels entered its markets every year. The caravan trade was created by the Ghadamsi merchants who, aided by their superior intelligence, capacity and honesty, long enjoyed a monopoly. In 1873 Tripolitan merchants began to compete with them. In 1893 came the invasion of Bornu by Rabah, and the total stoppage of this caravan route for nearly ten years to the great detriment of the merchants of Ghadames. The caravans from Kano were also frequently pillaged by the Tuareg, so that the prosperity of the town declined. Later on, the opening of rapid means of transport from Kano and other cities to the Gulf of Guinea also affected Ghadames, which, however, maintains a considerable trade. The chief articles brought by the caravans are ostrich feathers, skins and ivory and one of the principal imports is tea. In 1845 the population was estimated at 3000, of whom about 500 were slaves and strangers, and upwards of 1200 children; in 1905 it amounted in round numbers to 7000. The inhabitants are chiefly Berbers and Arabs. A Turkish garrison is maintained in the town.

Before the Christian era Ghadames was a stronghold of the

GHAT-GHAZIPUR

Garamantes whose power was overthrown in the days of Augustus | Imām ul-Haramain) until 1085, when he visited the celebrated by L. Cornelius Balbus Minor, who captured Ghadames(Cydamus). vizier Nizam ul-Mulk, who appointed him to a professorship in It is not unlikely that Roman settlers may have been attracted his college at Bagdad in 1091. Here he was engaged in writing to the spot by the presence of the warm springs which still rise against the Isma'ilites (Assassins). After four years of this in the heart of the town, and spread fertility in the surrounding work he suddenly gave up his chair, left home and family and gardens. In the 7th century Ghadames was conquered by the gave himself to an ascetic life. This was due to a growing scepti Arabs. It appears afterwards to have fallen under the power cism, which caused him much mental unrest and which gradually of the rulers of Tunisia, then to a native dynasty which reigned gave way to mysticism. Having secured his chair for his brother at Tripoli, and in the 16th century it became part of the Turkish he went to Damascus, Jerusalem, Hebron, Mecca, Medina and vilayet of Tripoli. It has since then shared the political fortunes Alexandria, studying, meditating and writing in these cities. of that country. In the first half of the 19th century it was visited by several British explorers and later by German and (Almoravid) reformation was being led by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, French travellers. In 1106 he was tempted to go to the West, where the Moravid however, died in this year, and Ghazali abandoned his idea. with whom he had been in correspondence earlier. Yusuf, At the wish of the sultan Malik Shah he again undertook proNishāpūr, but returned soon after to Tüs, where he died in fessorial work, this time in the college of Nizām ul-Mulk at December 1111.

See J. Richardson, Travels in the Great Desert of Sahara in 1845-
1846... including a Description of.
G. Rohlfs, Reise durch Marokko...
Ghadames (London, 1848):
Wüste über Rhadames nach Tripoli (Bremen, 1868).
und Reise durch die Grosse
GHAT, or RHAT, an oasis and town, forming part of the Turkish
vilayet of Tripoli. Ghat is an important centre of the caravan
trade between the Nigerian states and the seaports of the
Mediterranean (see TRIPOLI).

Sixty-nine works are ascribed to Ghazali (cf. C. Brockelmann's GHATS, or GHAUTS (literally " the Landing Stairs" from the Gesch. d. arabischen Litteratur, i. 421-426, Weimar, 1898). The sea, or "Passes "), two ranges of mountains extending along ed. L. Gautier (Geneva, 1878); the great work, Ihya ul-Ulüm most important of those which have been published are: a treatise the eastern and western shores of the Indian peninsula. The("Revival of the sciences") (Bulaq, 1872; Cairo, 1889); see a on eschatology called Ad-durra ul-fakhira ("The precious pearl "), word properly applies to the passes through the mountains, but from an early date was transferred by Europeans to the mountains themselves.

The Eastern Ghats run in fragmentary spurs and ranges down the Madras coast. They begin in the Orissa district of Balasore, pass southwards through Cuttack and Puri, enter the Madras presidency in Ganjam, and sweep southwards through the districts of Vizagapatam, Godavari, Nellore, Chingleput, South Arcot, Trichinopoly and Tinnevelly. distance of 50 to 150 m. from the coast, except in Ganjam and They run at a Vizagapatam, where in places they almost abut on the Bay of Bengal. Their geological formation is granite, with gneiss and mica slate, with clay slate, hornblende and primitive limestone overlying. The average elevation is about 1500 ft., but several hills in Ganjam are between 4000 and 5000 ft. high. For the most part there a broad expanse of low land between their base and the sea, and their line is pierced by the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery rivers.

The Western Ghats (Sahyadri in Sanskrit) start from the south of the Tapti valley, and run south through the districts of Khandesh, Nasik, Thana, Satara, Ratnagiri, Kanara and Malabar, and the states of Cochin and Travancore, meeting the Eastern Ghats at an angle near Cape Comorin. The range of the Western Ghats extends uninterruptedly, with the exception of a gap or valley 25 m. across, known as the Palghat gap, through which runs the principal railway of the south of India. The length of the range is 800 m. from the Tapti to the Palghat gap, and south of this about 200 m, to the extreme south of the peninsula. In many parts there is only a narrow strip of coast between the hills and the sea; at one point they rise in magnificent precipices and headlands out of the ocean. The average elevation is 3000 ft., precipitous on the western side facing the sea, but with a more gradual slope on the east to the plains below. The highest peaks in the northern section are Kalsubai, 5427 ft.; Harischandragarh, 4691 ft.; and Mahabaleshwar, where is the summer capital of the government of Bombay, 4700 ft. of Mahabaleshwar the elevation diminishes, but again increases, South and attains its maximum towards Coorg, where the highest peaks vary from 5500 to 7000 ft., and where the main range joins the interior Nilgiri hills. South of the Palghat gap, the peaks of the Western Ghats rise as high as 8000 ft. The geological formation is trap in the northern and gneiss in the southern section.

GHAZALI [Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad Abū Hāmid alGhazali] (1058-1111), Arabian philosopher and theologian, was born at Tūs, and belonged to a family of Ghazala (near Tūs) distinguished for its knowledge of canon law. Educated at first in Tus, then in Jorjān, and again in Tūs, he went to college at Nishapur, where he studied under Juwaini (known as the

commentary by al-Murtada called the Ithaf, published in 13 vols. Hidaya (Bulaq, 1870, and often at Cairo); a compendium of ethics, at Fez, 1885-1887, and in 10 vols. at Cairo, 1893; the Bidayat ul1839); a more popular treatise on ethics, the Kimiya us-Sa'ada, published at Lucknow, Bombay and Constantinople, ed. H. A. Mizan ul-'Amal, translated into Hebrew, ed. J. Goldenthal (Paris, ethical work O Child, ed. by Hammer-Purgstall in Arabic and German (Vienna, 1838); the Destruction of Philosophers (Tahafüt ul-Falasifa) Homes as The Alchemy of Happiness (Albany, NY., 1873); the (Cairo, 1885, and Bombay, 1887). Of this work a French translation into Latin by Dom. Gundisalvi (Venice, 1506), ed. with notes by was begun by Carra de Vaux in Muséon, vol. xviii. (1899); the G. Beer (Leiden, 1888); the Kitab ul-Mungid, giving an account of Magaşid ul-Falasifa, of which the first part on logic was translated the changes in his philosophical ideas, ed. by F. A. Schmölders in his Essai sur les écoles philosophiques chez les Árabes (Paris, 1842), also Barbier de Meynard in the Journal asiatique (1877, i. 1-93); printed at Constantinople, 1876, and translated into French by German translation and notes by H. Malter (Frankfort, 1896); Eng. trans., Confessions of al-Ghazzali, by Claud Field (1909). answers to questions asked of him ed. in Arabic and Hebrew, with

1859); D. B. Macdonald's "Life of al-Ghazzali," in Journal of For Ghazali's life see McG. de Slane's translation of Hbn Khallikān, American Oriental Society, vol. xx. (1899), and Carra de Vaux's ii. 621 ff.; R. Gösche's Über Ghazzali's Leben und Werke (Berlin, Gazali (Paris, 1902); see ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY. (G. W. T.)

given to Mahommedans who have vowed to exterminate unGHAZI (an Arabic word, from ghaza, to fight), the name generally translated "the Victorious," in the Ottoman empire for military officers of high rank, who have distinguished thembelievers by the sword. It is also used as a title of honour, selves in the field against non Moslem enemies; thus it was conferred on Osman Pasha after his famous defence of Plevna.

United Provinces, 12 m. from Delhi and 28 m. from Meerut. Pop. (1901) 11,275. The town was founded in 1740 by Ghazi-udGHAZIABAD, a town of British India in Meerut district of the din, son of Azaf Jah, first nizam of the Deccan, and takes its as the point of junction of the East Indian, the North-Western and the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway systems. The town has a name from its founder. It has considerably risen in importance trade in grain and hides.

Benares division of the United Provinces. The town stands on
the left bank of the Ganges, 44 m. E. of Benares. It is the
GHAZIPUR, a town and district of British India, in the
headquarters of the government opium department, where all
the opium from the United Provinces is collected and manu-
factured under a monopoly. There are also scent distilleries,
Cornwallis, governor-general of India, died at Ghazipur in 1805,
using the produce of the rose-gardens in the vicinity. Lord
erected over his grave. Pop. (1901) 39,429.
and a domed monument and marble statue (by Flaxman) are

part of the great alluvial plain of the Ganges, which divides
it into two unequal portions. The northern subdivision lies
The district of Ghazipur has an area of 1389 sq. m. It forms

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