(a) Palestinian:

Book of Noah.

(200-100 B.C.)

1 Enoch vi.-xxxvi. ; lxxii.-xc.
Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs
(100 B.C. to I B.C.)

Enoch, grows in strength with each succeeding age, till at last | ii. Extra-canonical:-
Satan is conceived as "the ruler of this world" (John xii. 31)
or "the god of this age " (2 Cor. iv. 4). Under the guidance
of such a principle the writer naturally expected the world's
culmination in evil to be the immediate precursor of God's
intervention on behalf of the righteous, and every fresh growth
in evil to be an additional sign that the time was at hand. The
natural concomitant in conduct of such a belief is an uncom-
promising asceticism. He that would live to the next world
must shun this. Visions are vouchsafed only to those who to
prayer have added fasting.

(c) By pseudonymous Authorship.-We have already touched
on this characteristic of apocalyptic. The prophet stood in
direct relations with his people; his prophecy was first spoken
and afterwards written. The apocalyptic writer could obtain
no hearing from his contemporaries, who held that, though God
spoke in the past, "there was no more any prophet." This
pessimism and want of faith limited and defined the form in
which religious enthusiasm should manifest itself, and prescribed
as a condition of successful effort the adoption of pseudonymous
authorship. The apocalyptic writer, therefore, professedly
addressed his book to future generations. Generally directions
as to the hiding and sealing of the book (Dan. xii. 4, 9; 1 Enoch
i. 4; Ass. Mos. i. 16-18) were given in the text in order to explain
its publication so long after the date of its professed period.
Moreover, there was a sense in which such books were not
wholly pseudonymous. Their writers were students of ancient
prophecy and apocalyptical tradition, and, though they might
recast and reinterpret them, they could not regard them as
their own inventions. Each fresh apocalypse would in the
eyes of its writer be in some degree but a fresh edition of the
traditions naturally attaching themselves to great names in
Israel's past, and thus the books named respectively Enoch,
Noah, Ezra would to some slight extent be not pseudonymous.
(d) By its comprehensive and deterministic Conception of
History.-Apocalyptic took an indefinitely wider view of the
world's history than prophecy. Thus, whereas prophecy had
to deal with temporary reverses at the hands of some heathen
power, apocalyptic arose at a time when Israel had been subject
for generations to the sway of one or other of the great world-
powers. Hence to harmonize such difficulties with belief in
God's righteousness, it had to take account of the rôle of such
empires in the counsels of God, the rise, duration and downfall
of each in turn, till finally the lordship of the world passed into
the hands of Israel, or the final judgment arrived. These events
belonged in the main to the past, but the writer represented
them as still in the future, arranged under certain artificial
categories of time definitely determined from the beginning in
the counsels of God and revealed by Him to His servants the
prophets. Determinism thus became a leading characteristic of
Jewish apocalyptic, and its conception of history became severely
mechanical.

II. OLD TESTAMENT APOCALYPTIC

i. Canonical:

Isaiah xxiv.-xxvii.; xxxiii.; xxxiv.-xxxv.
(Jeremiah xxxiii. 14-26?) ̧

Ezekiel ii. 8; xxxviii.-xxxix.

Joel iii. 9-17.

Zech. xii-xiv.
Daniel.

We cannot enter here into a discussion of the above passages and books. All are probably pseudepigraphic except the passages from Ezekiel and Joel. Of the remaining passages and books Daniel belongs unquestionably to the Maccabean period, and the rest possibly to the same period. Isaiah xxxiii. was probably written about 163 B.C. (Duhm and Marti); Zech. xii-xiv. about 160 B.C., Isaiah xxiv.-xxvii. about 128 B.C., and xxxiv.-XXXV. sometime in the reign of John Hyrcanus. Jeremiah xxxiii. 14-26 is assigned by Marti to Maccabean times, but this is highly questionable.

1 See the separate headings for the various apocalyptic books

mentioned in this article.

1 Enoch i.-v.; xxxvii.-lxxi.; xci.-civ.
Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs, i.e. T. Lev. x., xiv.-xvi.,
T. Jud. xxi. 6-xxiii, T. Zeb. ix., T. Dan. v. 6, 7.
Psalms of Solomon.

(A.D. 1-100 and later.)

Assumption of Moses.
Apocalypse of Baruch.

Ezra.

Greek Apocalypse of Baruch.
Apocalypse of Zephaniah.
Apocalypse of Abraham.
Prayer of Joseph.

Book of Eldad and Modad.
Apocalypse of Elijah.

(b) Hellenistic:

2 Enoch.

Oracles of Hystaspes.
Testament of Job.

Testaments of the III. Patriarchs.

Sibylline Oracles (excluding Christian portions).

Book of Noah.- Though this book has not come down to us independently, it has in large measure been incorporated in the Ethiopic Book of Enoch, and can in part be reconstructed from it. The Book of Noah is mentioned in Jubilees x. 13, xxi. 10. Chapters lx., lxv.-lxix. 25 of the Ethiopic Enoch are without question derived from it. Thus lx. 1 runs: "In the year 500, in the seventh month... in the life of Enoch." Here the editor simply changed the name Noah in the context before him into Enoch, for the statement is based on Gen. v. 32, and Enoch lived only 365 years. Chapters vi.-xi. are clearly from the same source; for they make no reference to Enoch, but bring forward Noah (x. 1) and treat of the sin of the angels that led to the flood, and of their temporal and eternal punishment. This section is compounded of the Semjaza and Azazel myths, and in its present composite form is already presupposed by 1 Enoch lxxxviii.-xc. Hence these chapters are earlier than 166 B.C. Chapters cvi.-cvii. of the same book are probably from the same source; likewise liv. 7-lv. 2, and Jubilees vii. 20-39, x. 1-15. In the former passage of Jubilees the subject-matter leads to this identification, as well as the fact that Noah is represented as speaking in the first person, although throughout Jubilees it is the angel that speaks. Possibly Eth. En. xli. 3-8, xliii.-xliv., lix. are from the same work. The book may have opened with Eth. En. cvi.-cvii. On these chapters may have followed Eth. En. vi.-xi., lxv.-lxix. 25, lx., xli. 3-8, xliii.-xliv., liv. 7-lv. 2; Jubilees vii. 26-39, x. 1-15.

The Hebrew Book of Noah, a later work, is printed in Jellinek's Bet ha-Midrasch, iii. 155-156, and translated into German in Rönsch, Das Buch der Jubiläen, 385-387. It is based on the part of the above Book of Noah which is preserved in the Book of Jubilees. The portion of this Hebrew work which is derived from the older work is reprinted in Charles's Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of Jubilees, p. 179.

1 Enoch, or the Ethiopic Book of Enoch. This is the most important of all the apocryphal writings for the history of religious thought. Like the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Megilloth and the Pirke Aboth, this work was divided into five parts, which, as we shall notice presently, spring from five different sources. Originally written partly in Aramaic (i.e. vi.-xxxvi.) and partly in Hebrew (i.-vi., xxxvii.-cviii.), it was translated into Greek, and from Greek into Ethiopic and possibly Latin. Only one-fifth of the Greek version in two forms survives. The various elements of the book were written by different authors at different dates. vi.-xxxvi. was written before 166 B.C., lxxii.-lxxxii. before the Book of Jubilees, i.e. before 120 B.C. or thereabouts, lxxxiii.-xc. about 166 B.C., i.-V., xci.-civ. before 95 B.C., and xxxvii.-lxxi. before 64 B.C. There are many interpolations drawn mainly from the Book of Noah.

Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs.-This book, in some respects

from the Greek, and the Greek in turn from the Hebrew. The book treats of the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom, the woes of Israel in the past and the destruction of Jerusalem in the present, as well as of theological questions relating to original sin, free will, works, &c. The views expressed on several of these subjects are often conflicting. We must, therefore, assume a number of independent sources put together by an editor or else that the book is on the whole the work of one author who made use of independent writings but failed to blend them into one harmonious whole. In its present form the book was written soon after A.D. 70. For fuller treatment see BARUCH.

the most important of Old Testament apocryphs, has only recently come into its own. Till a few years ago, owing to Christian interpolations, it was taken to be a Christian apocryph, written originally in Greek in the 2nd century A.D. Now it is acknowledged by Christian and Jewish scholars alike to have been written in Hebrew in the 2nd century B.C. From Hebrew it was translated into Greek and from Greek into Armenian and Slavonic. The versions have come down in their entirety, and small portions of the Hebrew text have been recovered from later Jewish writings. The Testaments were written about the same date as the Book of Jubilees, These two books form the only Apology in Jewish literature for the religious and civil hegemony of the Maccabees from the Pharisaic standpoint. 4 Ezra. This apocryph is variously named. In the first To the Jewish interpolation of the 1st century B.C. (about 60-40), Arabic and Ethiopic versions it is called 1 Ezra; in some Latin i.e. T. Lev. x., xiv.-xvi.; T. Jud. xxii.-xxiii., &c., a large MSS. and in the English authorized version it is 2 Ezra, and in interest attaches; for these, like 1 Enoch xci.-civ. and the Psalms the Armenian 3 Ezra. With the majority of the Latin MSS. we of Solomon, constitute an unmeasured attack on every office designate the book 4 Ezra. In its fullest form this apocryph prophetic, priestly and kingly-administered by the Maccabees. consists of sixteen chapters, but i.-ii. and xv.-xvi. are of different The ethical character of the book is of the highest type, and its authorship from each other and from the main work iii.-xiv. profound influence on the writers of the New Testament is yet ❘ The book was written originally in Hebrew. There are Latin, to be appreciated. (See TESTAMENTS OF THE XII. PATRIARCHS.) Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic (two), and Armenian versions. The Psalms of Solomon.-These psalms, in all eighteen, enjoyed Greek version is lost. This apocalypse is of very great importbut small consideration in early times, for only six direct refer-ance, on account of its very full treatment of the theological ences to them are found in early literature. Their ascription to Solomon is due solely to the copyists or translators, for no such claim is made in any of the psalms. On the whole, Ryle and James are no doubt right in assigning 70-40 B.C. as the limits within which the psalms were written. The authors were Pharisees. They divide their countrymen into two classes-"the righteous," ii. 38-39, iii. 3-5, 7, 8, &c., and "the sinners," ii. 38, iii. 13, iv. 9, &c.; "the saints," iii. 10, &c., and "the transgressors," iv. II, &c. The former are the Pharisees; the latter the Sadducees. They protest against the Asmonacan house for usurping the throne of David, and laying violent hands on the high priesthood (xvii. 5, 6, 8), and proclaim the coming of the Messiah, the Son of David, who is to set all things right and establish the supremacy of Israel. Pss. xvii.-xviii. and i.-xvi. cannot be assigned to the same authorship. The hopes of the Messiah are confined to the former, and a somewhat different eschatology underlies the two works. Since the Psalms were written in Hebrew, and intended for public worship in the synagogues, it is most probable that they were composed in Palestine. (See SOLOMON, THE PSALMS OF.)

The Assumption of Moses.-This book was lost for many centuries till a large fragment of it was discovered and published by Ceriani in 1861 (Monumenta Sacra, I. i. 55-64) from a palimpsest | of the 6th century. Very little was known about the contents of this book prior to this discovery. The present book is possibly the long-lost Aιalýkη Mwvotws mentioned in some ancient lists, for it never speaks of the assumption of Moses, but always of his natural death. About a half of the original Testament is preserved in the Latin version. The latter half probably dealt with questions about the creation. With this "Testament " the "Assumption," to which almost all the patristic references and that of Jude are made, was subsequently edited. The book was written between 4 B.C. and A.D. 7. As for the author, he was no Essene, for he recognizes animal sacrifices and cherishes the Messianic hope; he was not a Sadducce, for he looks forward to the establishment of the Messianic kingdom (x.); nor a Zealot, for the quietistic ideal is upheld (ix.), and the kingdom is established by God Himself (x.). He is therefore a Chasid of the ancient type, and glorifies the ideals which were cherished by the old Pharisaic party, but which were now being fast disowned in favour of a more active rôle in the political life of the nation. He pours his most scathing invectives on the Sadducees, who are described in vii. in terms that recall the anti-Sadducean Psalms of Solomon. His object, therefore, is to protest against the growing secularization of the Pharisaic party through its adoption of popular Messianic beliefs and political ideals. (See also MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF.)

questions rife in the latter half of the 1st century of the Christian era. The book, even if written by one author, was based on a variety of already existing works. It springs from the same school of thought as the Apocalypse of Baruch, and its affinities with the latter are so numerous and profound that scholars have not yet come to any consensus as to the relative priority of either. In its present form it was composed A.D. 80-100. For fuller treatment see EZRA.

Apocalypse of Baruch-The Greek.-This work is referred to by Origen (de Princip. II. iii. 6): “Denique etiam Baruch prophetae librum in assertionis hujus testimonium vocant, quod ibi de septem mundis vel caelis evidentius indicatur." This book survives in two forms in Slavonic and Greek. The former was translated by Bonwetsch in 1896, in the Nachrichten von der königl. Ges. der Wiss. zu Gött. pp. 91-101; the latter by James in 1897 in Anecdota, ii. 84-94, with an elaborate introduction (pp. li.-lxxi.). The Slavonic is only of secondary value, as it is merely an abbreviated form of the Greek. Even the Greek cannot claim to be the original work, but only to be a recension of it; for, whereas Origen states that this apocalypse contained an account of the seven heavens, the existing Greek work describes only five, and the Slavonic only two. As the original work presupposes 2 Enoch and the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch and was known to Origen, it was written between A.D. 80 and 200, and nearer the earlier date than the later, as it would otherwise be hard to understand how it came to circulate among Christians. The superscription shows points of connexion with the Rest of the Words of Baruch, but little weight can be attached to the fact, since titles and superscriptions were so frequently transformed and expanded in ancient times. As James and Kohler have pointed out, part of section 4 on the Vine is a Christian addition. A German translation of the Greek appears in Kautzsch's Apok. u. Pseud. ii. 448-457, and a strong article by Kohler on the Jewish authorship of the book in the Jewish Encyclopedia, ii. 549-551. (See BARUCH.)

Apocalypse of Abraham.-This book is found only in the Slavonic (edited by Bonwetsch, Studien zur Geschichte d. Theologie und Kirche, 1897), a translation from the Greek. It is of Jewish origin, but in part worked over by a Christian reviser. The first part treats of Abraham's conversion, and the second forms an apocalyptic expansion of Gen. xv. This book was possibly known to the author of the Clem. Recognitions, i. 32, a passage, however, which may refer to Jubilees. It is most probably distinct from the 'Amoκáλufis 'Aßpaáμ used by the gnostic Sethites (Epiphanius, Haer. xxxix. 5), which was very heretical. On the other hand, it is probably identical with the apocryphal book 'Aẞpaάu mentioned in the Stichometry of Nicephorus, and the Synopsis Athanasii, together with the

Apocalypse of Baruch-The Syriac.-This apocalypse has survived only in the Syriac version. The Syriac is a translation | Apocalypses of Enoch, &c.

Lost Apocalypses: Prayer of Joseph.-The Prayer of Joseph | Ethiopic, and Arabic versions. It deals with Abraham's reis quoted by Origen [In Joann. II. xxv, (Lommatzsch, i. 147, 148); in Gen. III. ix. (Lommatzsch, viii. 30-31)]. The fragments in Origen represent Jacob as speaking and claiming to be "the first servant in God's presence," "the first-begotten of every creature animated by God," and declaring that the angel who wrestled with Jacob (and was identified by Christians with Christ) was only eighth in rank. The work was obviously anti-Christian. (See Schürer3, iii, 265-266.)

Book of Eldad and Modad.-This book was written in the name of the two prophets mentioned in Num xi. 26-29. It consisted, according to the Targ. Jon. on Num. xi. 26-29, mainly of prophecies on Magog's last attack on Israel. The Shepherd of Hermas quotes it Vis. ii. 3. (See Marshall in Hastings' Bible Dictionary, i. 677.)

luctance to die and the means by which his death was brought
about. James holds that this book is referred to by Origen
(Hom. in Luc. xxxv.), but this is denied by Schürer, who also
questions its Jewish origin. With the exception of chaps. x.-xi.,
it is really a legend and not an apocalypse. An English transla-
tion of James's texts will be found in the Ante-Nicene Christian
| Library (Clark, 1897), pp. 185-201. The Testaments of Isaac
and Jacob are still preserved in Arabic and Ethiopic (see James,
op. cit. 140-161). See TESTAMENTS OF THE III. PATRIARCHS.
Sibylline Oracles.-Of the books which have come down to us
the main part is Jewish, and was written at various dates.
iii. 97-829, iv.-v. are decidedly of Jewish authorship, and
probably xi.-xii., xiv. and parts of i.-ii. The oldest portions are
in iii., and belong to the 2nd century B.C.

III. NEW TESTAMENT APOCALYPTIC

Apocalypse of Elijah.-This apocalypse is mentioned in two of the lists of books. Origen, Ambrosiaster, and Euthalius ascribe to it 1 Cor. ii. 9. If they are right, the apocalypse is When we pass from Jewish literature to that of the New pre-Pauline. The peculiar form in which I Cor. ii. 9 appears Testament, we enter into a new and larger atmosphere at once in Clemens Alex. Protrept. x. 94, and the Const. Apost. vii. 32, recalling and transcending what had been best in the prophetic shows that both have the same source, probably this apocalypse. periods of the past. Again the heavens had opened and the Epiphanius (Haer. xlii., ed. Ochler, vol. ii. 678) ascribes to this divine teaching come to mankind, no longer merely in books work Eph. v. 14. Isr. Lévi (Revue des études juives, 1880, i. bearing the names of ancient patriarchs, but on the lips of 108 sqq.) argues for the existence of a Hebrew apocalypse of living men, who had taken courage to appear in person as God's Elijah from two Talmudic passages. A late work of this name messengers before His people. But though Christianity was in has been published by Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrasch, 1855, iii. 65-68, spirit the descendant of ancient Jewish prophecy, it was no less and Buttenwieser in 1897. Zahn, Gesch. des N.T. Kanons, ii. 801- truly the child of that Judaism which had expressed its highest 810, assigns this apocalypse to the 2nd century A.D. (See aspirations and ideals in pseudepigraphic and apocalyptic Schürer, iii. 267-271.) literature. Hence we shall not be surprised to find that the Apocalypse of Zephaniah.-Apart from two of the lists this two tendencies are fully represented in primitive Christianity, work is known to us in its original form only through a citation and, still more strange as it may appear, that New Testament in Clem. Alex. Strom. v. 11, 77. A Christian revision of it is apocalyptic found a more ready hearing amid the stress and probably preserved in the two dialects of Coptic. Of these the storm of the 1st century than the prophetic side of Christianity, Akhmim text is the original of the Sahidic. These texts and and that the type of the forerunner on the side of its declared their translations have been edited by Steindorff, Lie Apokalypse asceticism appealed more readily to primitive Christianity than des Elias, eine unbekannte Apokalypse und Bruchstück der that of Him who came "cating and drinking," declaring beth Sophonias-Apokalypse (1899). As Schürer (Theol. Literatur- worlds good and both God's. zeitung, 1899, No. I. 4-8) has shown, these fragments belong Early Christianity had thus naturally a special fondness for most probably to the Zephaniah apocalypse. They give descrip- this class of literature. It was Christianity that preserved Jewish tions of heaven and hell, and predictions of the Antichrist. In apocalyptic, when it was abandoned by Judaism as it sank into their present form these Christianized fragments are not earlier Rabbinism, and gave it a Christian character either by a forcible than the 3rd century. (See Schürer, Gesch. des jud. Volkes, exegesis or by a systematic process of interpolation. Moreover, iii. 271-273.) it cultivated this form of literature and made it the vehicle of its own ideas. Though apocalyptic served its purpose in the opening centuries of the Christian era, it must be confessed that in many of its aspects its office is transitory, as they belong not to the essence of Christian thought. When once it had taught men that the next world was God's world, though it did so at the cost of relinquishing the present to Satan, it had achieved its real task, and the time had come for it to quit the stage of history, when Christianity appeared as the heir of this true spiritual achievement. But Christianity was no less assuredly the heir of ancient prophecy, and thus as spiritual representative of what was true in prophecy and apocalyptic; its essential teaching was as that of its Founder that both worlds were of God and that both should be made God's. (i.) Canonical:—

2 Enoch, or the Slavonic Enoch, or the Book of the Secrets of Enoch. This new fragment of the Enochic literature was recently brought to light through five MSS. discovered in Russia and Servia. The book in its present form was written before A.D. 70 in Greek by an orthodox Hellenistic Jew, who lived in Egypt. For a fuller account see ENOCH.

An

Oracles of Hystas pes.-See under N. T. Apocalypses, below. Testament of Job. This book was first printed from one MS. by Mai, Script. Vet. Nov. Coll. (1833), VII. i. 180, and translated into French in Migne's Dict. des Apocryphes, ii. 403. excellent edition from two MSS. is given by M. R. James, Apocrypha Anecdota, ii. pp. lxxii.-cii., 104-137, who holds that the book in its present form was written by a Christian Jew in Egypt on the basis of a Hebrew Midrash on Job in the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. Kohler (Kohut Memorial Volume, 1897, pp. 264-338) has given good grounds for regarding the whole work, with the exception of some interpolations, as one of the most remarkable productions of the pre-Christian era, explicable only when viewed in the light of Hasidean practice." See Jewish Encycl. vii. 200-202.

Testaments of the III. Patriarchs.-For an account of these three Testaments (referred to in the Apost. Const. vi. 16), the first of which only is preserved in the Greek and is assigned by James to the 2nd century A.D., see that scholar's "Testament of Abraham," Texts and Studies, ii. 2 (1892), which appears in two recensions from six and three MSS. respectively, and Vassiliev's Anecdota Graeco-Byzantina (1893), pp. 292-308, from one MS. already used by James. This work was written in Egypt, according to James, and survives also in Slavonic, Rumanian, I

Apocalypse in Mark xiii. (Matthew xxiv., Luke xxi.).
2 Thessalonians ii.
Revelation.

(ii.) Extra-Canonical:-
Apocalypse of Peter.
Testament of Hezekiah.
Testament of Abraham.
Oracles of Hystaspes.
Vision of Isaiah.
Shepherd of Hermas.
5 Ezra.

|

sustinebo in his quae inique exercent, that is 2 : in 9 vindicans | of intercession for sinners and Sedrach's unwillingness to die. vindicabo: in 22 non parcel dextera mea super peccatores= See James, Texts and Studies, ii. 3. 127-137. peioerai... éni=by...bom. In verses 9, 19 the manifest corruptions may be explicable from a Semitic background. There are other Hebraisms in the text. It is true that these might have been due to the writer's borrowings from earlier Greek works ultimately of Hebrew origin. The date of the book is also quite uncertain, though several scholars have ascribed it to the 3rd century.

Apocalypses of Paul, Thomas and Stephen.-These are mentioned in the Gelasian decree. The first may possibly be the Questions of St Bartholomew.-See Vassiliev, Anec. Graeco'Araßarikov Пaúλov mentioned by Epiphanius (Haer. xxxviii. 2) Byzantina (1893), pp. 10-22. The introduction, which is wanting as current among the Cainites. It is not to be confounded within the Greek MS., has been supplied by a Latin translation from the apocalypse mentioned two sections later. the Slavonic version (see pp. vii.-ix.). The book contains disclosures by Christ, the Virgin and Beliar and much of the subjectmatter is ancient. (R. H. 'C.) APOCATASTASIS, a Greek word, meaning "re-establish, ment," used as a technical scientific term for a return to a previous position or condition.