(foreign mercenaries), but at that engagement Warwick's centre consisted solely of bows and bills (1471). The new weapons gradually made their way, but even in 1588, the year of the Armada, the local forces of Devonshire comprised 800 bows to 1600" shot," and 800 bills to 800 pikes. But the Armada year saw the last appearance of the English archer, and the same county in 1598 provides neither archers nor billmen, while in the professional army in Ireland these weapons had long given way to musket and caliver, pike and halberd. Archers appeared in civilized warfare as late as 1807, when fifteen hundred "baskiers," horse-archers, clad in chain armour, fought against Napoleon in Poland. As a weapon of the chase the bow was in its various forms employed even more than in war. The rise of archery as a sport in England was, of course, a consequence of its military value, which caused it to be so heartily encouraged by all English Sovereigns. | meaning 180 yds., and so on. (Vide "Clout-shooting" infra.) The chief matches in which the Woodmen engage are those against the Royal Company of Scottish Archers. The Royal British Bowmen date back to the end of the 18th century. Like many others, during the Napoleonic war they suspended operations, revived when peace was made. The club was finally dissolved in 1880. The Royal Kentish Bowmen were founded in 1785, but did not survive the war. John O'Gaunt's Bowmen, who still meet at Lancaster, were revived, not created, at the same time, and still flourish. The Herefordshire Bowmen only shoot at 60 yds., while the West Berks Society is limited to twelve members, who meet at each other's houses, except for their Autumn Handicap, shot on the Toxophilite Grounds216 arrows at 100 yds. The Royal Company of Archers is the chief Scottish society. Originally a semi-military body constituted in 1676, it practised archery as a pastime from the time of its foundation, several meetings being held in the first few The Japanese were from their earliest times great archers, years of its existence. It devoted itself to "rovers," or longand the bow was the weapon par excellence of their soldiers. range shooting at the "clout," among its most interesting The standard length of the bow (usually bamboo) was trophies being the "Musselburgh Arrow," first shot for in 1603, Japan. 7 ft. 6 in., of the arrow 3 ft. to 3 ft. 9 in. Numerous possibly even earlier, in that town; the competition was then feats of archery are recorded to have taken place in the "thirty-open to all comers, for archery was long popular in Scotland, three span "halls of Kioto and Tokyo, where the archer had especially at Kilwinning, the headquarters of popinjay (q.v.) to shoot the whole length of a very low corridor, 128 yds. long. shooting. Other prizes are the "Peebles Silver Arrow," dating Wada Daihachi in the 17th century shot 8133 arrows down the back to 1626, the "Edinburgh Silver Arrow " (1709), the “Selcorridor in twenty-four consecutive hours, averaging five shotskirk Arrow," a very ancient prize, the "Dalhousie Sword," the a minute, and in 1852 a modern archer made 5583 successful "Hopetoun Royal Commemoration Prize," and others, shot shots in twenty hours, or over four a minute. for at ranges of 180 or 200 yds. The most curious is the "Goose Medal." Originally a goose was buried in a butt with only its head visible, and this was the archers' mark; now a small glass globe is substituted. The " Popingo (Popinjay) Medal," for which a stuffed parrot was once used as the mark, is now contested at the ordinary butts. The Kilwinning Society of Archers, founded in 1688, did not disband till 1870; the Irvine Toxophilites flourished from 1814 till about 1867. But of all societies the Grand National Archery Society, regulating the great meetings, though comparatively young, is the most important. Various open meetings were already in existence, but in 1844 a few leading archers projected a Grand National Meeting, which was held in York in that year and in 1845 and 1846, and subsequently in other places. But the society did not exist as such till 1861, after the meeting held at Liverpool, since when, notwithstanding some financial troubles, it has been the legislative and managing body of English archery. The chief meetings are the "Championship," the "Leamington and Midland Counties," the "Crystal Palace," the "Grand Western" and the "Grand Northern." For some years a "Scottish Grand National" was held, but fell into abeyance. The "Scorton Arrow" is no longer shot for in the Yorkshire village of that name, but the meeting, held regularly in the county, dates back to 1673 by record, and is probably far older. The silver arrow and the captaincy are awarded to the man who makes the first gold; the silver bugle and lieutenancy to the first red; the gold medal to most hits, and a horn spoon to the last white. The Pastime of Archery.-The use of the bow and arrow as a pastime naturally accompanied their use as weapons of war, but when the gun began to supersede the bow the History of pastime lost its popularity. Charles II., however, sport. and his queen, Catherine of Braganza, interested themselves in English archery, the queen in 1676 presenting a silver badge or shield to the " Marshall of the Fraternity of Archers," which badge, once the property of the Finsbury Archers, was transferred to the keeping of the Royal Toxophilite Society, when in 1841 the two clubs combined. The Toxophilite Society was founded in 1781; for though in the north archery had long been practised, its resuscitation in the south really dates from the formation of this club by Sir Ashton Lever. This society received the title of "Royal" in 1847, though it had long been patronized by royalty. It is an error to suppose that the Finsbury Archers were connected with the Archers' division of the Hon. Artillery Company, but many members of the Toxophilite Society joined that division, and used its ground for shooting, securing, however, a London ground of their own in the district where Gower Street, W.C., now is. When this ground became unavailable, the shooting probably took place at Highbury, and later in 1820, on Lord's cricket ground, the present ground in the Inner Circle of Regent's Park, near the Botanical Gardens, not being acquired till 1833. The society may be regarded as the most important body connected with archery, most of the leading archers belonging to it, though the Grand National Archery Society controls the public meetings. Among its more important events is the shooting of 144 arrows at 100 yds. for the Crunder Cup and Bugle. In the early days of the club targets of different sizes were used at the different ranges, and the scores were recorded in money (e.g. " Mr Elwin, 86 hits, £5:5:6"). The Woodmen of Arden can claim an almost equal antiquity, having been founded-some say "revived"in 1785. The number of members is limited to 80; at one time there were 81, Sir Robert Peel having been elected as a supernumerary by way of compliment. The headquarters of the Woodmen are at Meriden in Warwickshire; the club has a nominal authority over vert and venison, whence its officers bear appropriate names-warden, master-forester and verderers; and the annual meeting is called the Wardmote. The masterforester, or captain for the year, is the maker of the first "gold" at the annual target; he who makes the second is the senior verderer. The club devotes itself to the old-fashioned cloutshooting at long ranges, reckoned by "scores," nine score In the United States archery has had a limited popularity. The only one of the early clubs that lasted long was the "United Bowmen of Philadelphia," founded in 1828, but defunct in 1859. There was a revival twenty years later, when a National Association was formed; and various meetings were held annually and championships instituted, but there was never any popular enthusiasm for the sport, though it showed signs of increasing favour towards the end of the 19th century. The longer ranges are not greatly favoured by American archers, though at some meetings the regulation "York Round" (vide infra under "Targets") and the "National" are shot. Other rounds are the "Potomac," 24 arrows at 80, 24 at 70, and 24 at 60 yds.; the "Double American," 60 arrows each at 60, 50 and 40 yds.; and the "Double Columbia," for ladies, 48 each at 50, 40 and 30 yds. In team matches ladies shoot 96 arrows at 50 yds., gentlemen 96 at 60. The Bow.-As used in the pastime of archery the length of the bows does not vary much, though it bears some relation to the length of the arrow and the length of the arrow to the strength of the archer, to which the weight of the bow has to be adapted. The proper weight of a bow is the number of lb which, attached to the string, will draw a full-length arrow to its head. For men's bows the drawing-power varies from 40 to 60 lb, anything above this being extreme; ladies' bows draw from 24 to 32 lb. Estimating 50 tb as a fair average, such a bow would be 6 ft. 1 in. long for a 30-in., 6 ft. for a 28-in., and 5 ft. 11 in. for a 27-in. arrow, but the height as well as the strength of the archer have to be considered. Similarly a lady's bow on the average measures about 5 ft. 6 in. and her arrows 25 in. Modern bows are either made entirely of yew (occasionally of other woods), when they are called "self-bows," or of a combination of woods, when they are called " backed-bows." Self-bows are rarely or never made in a single stave, owing to the difficulty of obtaining true and flawless wood of the necessary length; hence two staves joined by a double fish-joint, which forms the centre of the bow, are used, tested and adjusted so that they may be as equally elastic as possible. The best yew is imported from Italy and Spain, and is allowed to season for three years before it is made into a bow, which again is not used till it is two years older. In backed-bows the belly, the rounded part nearest to the string, is generally but not necessarily made of yew, the back, or flat part, of yew (the best), hickory, lance or other woods, glued together in strips. The centre of the bow, for about 18 in., should be stiff and resisting, then tapering off gradually to the horns in which the string is fitted, the greatest care being taken that the two limbs are uniform. The bow of selfyew is generally considered more agreeable to handle and has a better" cast," throwing the arrow more smoothly and with less jar, and since no glued parts are exposed, it is less liable to injury from wet. On the other hand," crysals" (tiny cracks, which are apt to extend) are more frequent in this class of bow. Self-yew bows cost £8 or £10, where a good backed-bow can be bought for about half that. The self-bow is more sensitive than other bows, and its work is mostly done during the last few inches of the pull, where the backed-bow pulls evenly throughout. The backed-bow should be perfectly straight in the back, but after use often loses its shape either by "following the string," i.e. getting bent inwards on the string-side, or by becoming "reflex" (bending the opposite way). Self-bows are even more apt to lose their shape than backed-bows, as there is no hard wood to counteract the natural grain. A bow that is strongly reflexed at the ends is known as a "Cupid's bow." To form the handle the wood of the bow is left thick in the centre, and braid, leather or indiarubber is wound round it to give a better grip. radius-nine. The exact centre the gold is called the pin-hole." The targets are set up in pairs, facing each other, the distances for men being 100, 80 and 60 yds.; for ladies, 60 and 50; for convenience, 5 yds. are added to allow for a shooting-line that distance in front of each target. The centre of the gold should be 4 ft. from the ground. Each archer-shoots three arrows- an "end"-at one target; they then cross over and mark the scores. If an arrow cuts two rings, the archer is credited with the value of the higher one. In matches a " York Round " or a "St George's Round" is usually shot by men, the former consisting of 144 arrows, 72 at 100 yds... 48 at 80 yds., and 24 at 60 yds., the latter of 36 arrows at each of these distances. One York Round only is shot on a day; a double York Round is shot, one on each day, at the more important meetings. Ladies usually shoot the "National Round " of 48 arrows at 60 yds. and 24 at 50 yds. At most meetings the prizes are awarded on the gross scores; at others, including the Championship meeting, on points, two points for the highest score on the round and two for most hits on the round, one point each for highest score and most hits at each of the three ranges, ten points in all. Ladies' scores are calculated similarly. To decide the Championship, the Grand National Archery Society passed a rule in 1894 that " The Champion prizes shall be awarded to the archer gaining the greatest number of points, provided that those for gross hits or gross score are included; any points won by other archers shall be redistributed among those gaining the points for gross hits or gross score." Handicapping may be done by rings," the winner of a first prize not being allowed to count "whites at subsequent meetings, and "blacks" and "blues" being lost for further successes. Better methods are (1) to deduct a percentage from the gross score of successful shooters, (2) to handicap by points, as in other pastimes, or (3) to rate a shooter according to the average of his last year's performances, re-rating him monthly, or at convenient intervals, the system being to add his average of the current year to his average of last year, and divide the sum by two to form his new rating. Modern The String and Stringing.-The string is made of three strands of hemp, dressed with a preparation of glue, and should be perfectly round, smooth and not frayed, as a broken string may result in a broken bow. The string, at its centre, is 6 in. from the belly of the man's bow; 5 in. in the lady's bow. The clenched fist with the thumb upright was the old, rough and ready estimate, known as "fist-mele." For a few inches above and below the nocking point the string is lapped with carpet-thread to save it from fraying by contact with the arm; the nocking point being made by another lapping of filoselle silk, so that the string may exactly fit the nock of the arrow."flight arrow," a good archer should be able to reach 300 or 310 yds. When a bow is properly strung the string should be longitudinally along the middle of the belly. Arrows and Nocking. The parts of the arrow are the shaft, the "nock" or notch, the "pile or point, and the feathers. The shaft is made of seasoned red deal, and may be "self" or "footed." Most arrows are footed," i.e. a piece of hard wood to which the pile is attached is spliced to the deal shaft, which should be perfectly straight and stiff. The shaft is made in several shapes. Most archers prefer the "parallel " pattern-the shaft being the same size from nock to pile; the next is the "barrelled," the shape being thick in the centre and tapering towards the ends. The "bob-tail diminishes from the pile to the nock; the "chested" tapers from the middle to the pile. The pile should not be taper but cylindrical, "broadshouldered "where the point begins. The nock is cut square. There are three feathers, the body feathers of a turkey or peacock being the best. They should all curve the same way, are about 1 in. long and in. deep, with the ends near the nock either square, or balloon-shaped. The weight of an arrow is its weight in new English silver; a five-shilling arrow is heavy for a man's bow, while fourshillings is light. A 28-in. arrow for a 50-lb bow may weigh four-andninepence; a 27-in. arrow four-and-sixpence. This may serve as a rough standard. Other Implements.-The archer uses finger-tips, or a "tab" of leather, to protect the fingers against the string, and a leather bracer" to protect the left arm from its blow. Quivers are not now used except by ladies. A special box for carrying bows and arrows about; a proper cupboard, known as an "ascham," in which they may be kept at home in a dry, even temperature, not too hot: and a baize or leather case for use on the ground, are important minor articles of equipment. Targets, Scoring and Handicapping.-The targets, 4 ft. in diameter, are made of straw 3 to 4 in. thick, and are supported sloping slightly backwards by an iron stand. The faces are of floor-cloth painted with concentric rings, 4 in. each in breadth. The outer ring, white, counts one point; the next, black, three; the next, blue, five; the next. red, seven; and the next, gold-a complete circle of 43 in. Clout and Long Distance Shooting.-This form of archery is chiefly supported by the Woodmen of Arden and the Royal Company. At 100 yds., the target (smaller by 4 in. than the usual one, but with an inner white circle instead of the blue) is set up against a butt only 18 in. from the ground, but for nine-score, ten-score, and twelve score shooting it is a white target, 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, with a black centre. The target, the centre and the arrow that hits the centre are each known as a "clout." Hits and misses are signalled by a marker stationed, rather perilously, by the side of the butt. The target is sloped backwards to an angle of 60°, with rings marked round it on the ground at distances of 1 ft., 3 ft., 6 ft. and 9 ft., a hit in the outer ring counting one, and in the next two, and so on, the clout or centre counting six. For the longer ranges lighter arrows are used. The Scottish clout was a piece of canvas, stretched on a frame; the range 180 or 200 yds.; all arrows counted one that were within 24 ft. of the target, the clout counting two. archers have paid scant attention to mere distance-shooting, which is an art of its own, but their experiments prove that with a fairly heavy bow, say 60 lb or 63 lb, and a long light arrow, known as a With a heavier bow, properly under control, 50 or 60 yds. might be added to this by a strong man. These experiments seem to be verified by a quotation from Shakespeare (Henry IV. Act iii. Sc. 2): A' would have clapped i' the clout and twelve score, and carried you a forehand shaft a fourteen and fourteen and a half,' i.e. 280 or 290 yds. Instances are recorded of Englishmen shooting 340 and 360 yds., but in 1795 Mahmoud Effendi of the Turkish embassy shot 482 yds. with a Turkish bow, and Sultan Selim 972. The Turk, however, used a Turkish bow and a 14-in. arrow, with a grooved rest on his left arm along which the arrow passed, to compensate for the difference between the draw of the bow and the shortness of the arrow. The diplomatist's shot is supported by good evidence, but the sultan's is regarded as improbable at least. Championship and Scores.-The British championship meetings, instituted in 1844, are conducted under the laws of the Grand National Archery Society: the prizes, apart from the Challenge prizes, are given in money, there being also a rule that any one who makes three golds at one end receives a shilling from all others of the same sex who are shooting. The most notable champion was Horace A. Ford (d. 1880), who held the title for eleven consecutive years, 1849 to 1859 inclusive, and again in 1867. He made a fourfigure score at four other championship meetings, his highest, 1251 (in 1857) for 245 hits being unapproached. To him the modern scientific practice of archery must largely be attributed, together with its improvement and its popularity. The names of G. Edwards, Major C. Hawkins Fisher, H. H. Palairet, C. E. Nesham, and G. E. S. Fryer, are also notable as champions. Among ladies Mrs Horniblow was champion for eleven years between 1852 and 1881, Miss Legh for nineteen years between 1880 and 1908; Mrs Piers Legh, Miss Betham and Mrs Bowly claim the title on four occasions. Mrs Bowly's score of 823 (1894) was the highest made for the champion. ship till Miss Legh made 825 with 143 hits-only one arrow missed altogether-in 1898; beating her own record with a score of 841 (143 hits) in 1904. It should not be forgotten that as the champion ship is awarded by points, the highest score does not necessarily win See Roger Ascham, Toxophilus (1545), edited by Edward Arber (London, 1868); The Arte of Warre, by William Garrard (London 1591); The Arte of Archerie, by Gervase Markbam (London, 1634); Ancient and Modern Methods of Arrow Release, by E. S. Morse (1885); The English Bowman, by T. Roberts (London, 1801); A Treatise on Archery, by Thomas Waring (London, 9th ed., 1832); The Theory and Practice of Archery, by Horace A. Ford (new ed., London, 1887); Archery, by C. J. Longman and H. Walrond (Badminton Library, London, 1894). (W. J. F.) ARCHES, COURT OF, the English ecclesiastical court of appeal of the archbishop of Canterbury, as metropolitan of the province of Canterbury, from all the consistory and commissary courts in the province. It derives its name from its ancient place of judicature, which was in the church of Beata Maria de Arcubus -St Mary-le-Bow or St Mary of the Arches, "by reason of the steeple thereof raised at the top with stone pillars in fashion like a bow bent archwise." This parish was the chief of thirteen locally situated within the diocese of London but exempt from the bishop's jurisdiction, and it was no doubt owing to this circumstance that it was selected originally as the place of judicature for the archbishop's court. The proper designation of the judge is official principal of the Arches court, but by custom he came to be styled the dean of the Arches, a title belonging formerly to the chief official of the subordinate court. Originally, the official principal exercised metropolitan jurisdiction, while the dean of the Arches exercised the "peculiar " jurisdiction. The jurisdictions called "peculiars" at one time numbered nearly 300 in England. They were originally introduced by the pope for the purpose of curtailing the bishop's legitimate authority within his diocese; "an object which," says Phillimore, "they certainly attained, to the great confusion of ecclesiastical jurisdiction for many years." The dean of the Arches originally had jurisdiction over the thirteen London parishes above mentioned, but as the official principal was often absent as ambassador on the continent, he became his substitute, and gradually the two offices were blended together. The original office of the dean of the Arches may now be regarded as extinct, though the title is still popularly used, for no dean of the Arches has been appointed co nomine for several centuries, and by an act of 1838 bishops have jurisdiction over all peculiars within their diocese. The judge of the Arches court was until 1874 appointed by the archbishop of Canterbury by patent which, when confirmed by the dean and chapter of Canterbury, conferred the office for the life of the holder. He took the oaths of office required by the 127th canon. But by the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874 the two archbishops were empowered, subject to the approval of the sovereign by sign-manual, from time to time to appoint a practising barrister of ten years' standing, or a person who had been a judge of one of the superior courts (being a member of the Church of England) to be, during good behaviour, a judge for the purpose of exercising jurisdiction under that act, and it was enacted (sec. 7) that on a vacancy occurring in the office of official principal of the Arches court the judge should become ex officio such official principal. In this way the late Lord more in 1875. Lord Penzance received in 1878 a supplemental patent as dean from Archbishop Tait, but did not otherwise fulfil the conditions observed on the appointment of his predecessors. On Lord Penzance's retirement in 1899, his successor, Sir Arthur Charles, received a patent from the archbishop of Canterbury as official principal of the Arches court, and he took the oaths of office according to the practice before the Public Worship Regulation Act. He was subsequently and separately appointed judge under that act. Sir A. Charles resigned in 1903 and was succeeded by Sir L. T. Dibdin, who qualified in the same way as his immediate predecessor. The official principal of the Arches court is the only ecclesiastical judge who is empowered to pass a sentence of deprivation against a clerk in holy orders. The appeals from the decisions of the Arches court were formerly made to the king in chancery, but they are now by statute addressed to the king in council, and they are heard before the judicial committee of the privy council. By an act of Henry VIII. (Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1532) the Arches court is empowered to hear, in the first instance, such suits as Penzance became dean on the retirement of Sir Robert Philli are sent up to it by letters of request from the consistorial courts of the bishops of the province of Canterbury, and by the Church Discipline Act 1840, this jurisdiction is continued to it, and it is further empowered to accept letters of request from the bishops of the province of Canterbury after they have issued commissions of inquiry under that statute, and the commissioners have made their report. The Arches court was also the court of appeal from the consistory courts of the bishops of the province in all testamentary and matrimonial causes. The matrimonial jurisdiction was transferred to the crown by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. Under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892 an appeal lies from the judgment of a consistory court under that act, in respect of fact by leave of the appellate court, and in respect of law without leave, to either the Arches court or the judicial committee of the privy council at the option of the appellant. Under the Benefices Act 1898 the official principal of the archbishop is required to institute a presentee to a benefice if the tribunal constituted under that act decides that there is no valid ground for refusing institution and the bishop of the diocese notwithstanding fails to institute him. After the College of Advocates was incorporated and had established itself in Doctors' Commons, the archbishop's court of appeal, as well as his prerogative court, were usually held in the hall of the College of Advocates, but after the destruction of the buildings of the college, the court of appeal held its sittings, for the most part, in Westminster Hall. For many years past there has been but little business in the Arches court, mainly owing to the unwillingness of a large number of the clergy to recognize the jurisdiction of what they deny to be any longer a spiritual court, and the consistent use by the bishops of their right of veto in the case of prosecutions under the Public Worship Regulation Act. On the rare occasions when a sitting of the court is necessary, it is held in the library of Lambeth Palace, or at the Church House, Westminster. ARCHESTRATUS, of Syracuse or Gela, a Greek poet, who flourished about 330 B.C. After travelling extensively in search of foreign delicacies for the table, he embodied the result in a humorous poem called 'Hovrála, afterwards freely translated by Ennius under the title Heduphagetica. About 300 lines of this gastronomical poem are preserved in Athenaeus. The writer, who has been styled the Hesiod or Theognis of gluttons, parodies the style of the old gnomic poets; chief attention is paid to details concerning fish. Poesis Epicae Graecae ludibundae, i. 1888; Schmid, De Archestrati Ribbeck, Archestrati Reliquiae (1877); Brandt, Corpusculum Gelensis Fragmentis (1896). ARCHIAC, ÉTIENNE JULES ADOLPHE DESMIER DE SAINT SIMON, VICOMTE D' (1802-1868), French geologist and palaeontologist, was born at Reims on the 24th of September 1802. He was educated in the Military School of St Cyr, and served for nine years as a cavalry officer until 1830, when he retired from the service. Prior to this he had published an historical romance; but now geology came to occupy his chief attention. In his earlier scientific works, which date from 1835, he described the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations of France, Belgium and England, and dealt especially with the distribution of fossils geographically and in sequence. Later on he investigated the Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian formations. His great work, Histoire des progrès de la géologie, 1834-1859. was published in 8 volumes at Paris (1847-1860). In 1853 the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society was awarded to him. In the same year, with Jules Haime (1824-1856), he published a monograph on the Nummulitic formation of India. In 1857 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1861 he was appointed professor of palaeontology in the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. Of later works his Paléontologie stratigraphique, in 3 vols. (1864–1865); his Géologie et paléon tologie (1866); and his palaeontological contributions to de Tchihatcheff's Asie mineure (1866), may be specially mentioned. He died on the 24th of December 1868. See Notice sur les travaux scientifiques du vicomte d'Archiac, par A. Gaudry (Meulan, 1874); Extrait du Bull. Soc. Géo!, de France, ser. 3. t. ii. p. 230 (1874). ARCHIAS, AULUS LICINIUS, Greek poet, was born at Antioch in Syria 120 B.C. In 102, his reputation having been already established, especially as an improvisatore, he came to Rome, where he was well received amongst the highest and most influential families. His chief patron was Lucullus, whose gentile name he assumed. In 93 he visited Sicily with his patron, on which occasion he received the citizenship of Heracleia, one of the federate towns, and indirectly, by the provisions of the lex Plautia Papiria, that of Rome. In 61 he was accused by a certain Gratius of having assumed the citizenship illegally; and Cicero successfully defended him in his speech Pro Archia. This speech, which furnishes nearly all the information concerning Archias, states that he had celebrated the deeds of Marius and Lucullus in the Cimbrian and Mithradatic wars, and that he was engaged upon a poem of which the events of Cicero's consulship formed the subject. The Greek Anthology contains thirty-five epigrams under the name of Archias, but it is doubtful how many of these (if any) are the work of the poet of Antioch. Cicero, Pro Archia; T. Reinach, De Archia Poeta (1890). ARCHIDAMUS, the name of five kings of Sparta, of the Eurypontid house. 1. The son and successor of Anaxidamus. His reign, which began soon after the close of the second Messenian War, is said to have been quiet and uneventful (Pausanias iii. 7. 6). 2. The son of Zeuxidamus, reigned 476-427 B.C. (but see LEOTYCHIDES). He succeeded his grandfather Leotychides upon the banishment of the latter, his father having already died. His coolness and presence of mind are said to have saved the Spartan state from destruction on the occasion of the great earthquake of 464 (Diodorus xi. 63; Plutarch, Cimon, 16), but this story must be regarded as at least doubtful. He was a friend of Pericles and a man of prudence and moderation. During the negotiations which preceded the Peloponnesian War he did his best to prevent, or at least to postpone, the inevitable struggle, but was overruled by the war party. He invaded Attica at the head of the Peloponnesian forces in the summers of 431, 430 and 428, and in 429 conducted operations against Plataea. He died probably in 427, certainly before the summer of 426, when we find his son Agis on the throne. Herod. vi. 71; Thuc. i. 79-iii. 1; Plut. Pericles, 29. 33; Diodorus xi. 48-xii. 52. 3. The son and successor of Agesilaus II., reigned 360-338 B.C. During his father's later years he proved himself a brave and capable officer. In 371 he led the relief force which was sent to aid the survivors of the battle of Leuctra. Four years later he captured Caryae, ravaged the territory of the Parrhasii and defeated the Arcadians, Argives and Messenians in the "tearless battle," so called because the victory did not cost the Spartans a single life. In 364, however, he sustained a severe reverse in attempting to relieve a besieged Spartan garrison at Cromnus in south-western Arcadia. He showed great heroism in the defence of Sparta against Epaminondas immediately before the battle of Mantineia (362). He supported the Phocians during the Sacred War (355-346), moved, no doubt, largely by the hatred of Thebes which he had inherited from his father: he also led the Spartan forces in the conflicts with the Thebans and their allies which arose out of the Spartan attempt to break up the city of Megalopolis. Finally he was sent with a mercenary army to Italy to protect the Tarentines against the attacks of Lucanians or Messapians: he fell together with the greater part of his force at Mandonion on the same day as that on which the battle of Chaeronea was fought. Xen. Hell. v. 4, vi. 4. vii. 1. 4. 5: Plut. Agis. 3. Camillus, 19, Agesilaus, 25, 33, 34, 40; Pausanías iii. to, vi. 4; Diodorus xv. 54, 72, xvi. 24, 39, 59; 62, 88. 4. The son of Eudamidas I., grandson of Archidamus III. The dates of his accession and death are unknown. In 294 B.C he was defeated at Mantineia by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who invaded Laconia, gained a second victory close to Sparta, and was on the point of taking the city itself when he was called So Plut. Agis, 3 (all MSS.). Following Cellarius, some authori. ties read Manduria or Mandyrium. away by the news of the successes of Lysimachus and Ptolemy in Asia Minor and Cyprus. Plut. Agis, 3, Demetrius, 35: Pausanias, i. 13. 6, vii. 8. 5; Niese, Gesch. der griech. u. makedon. Staaten, i. 363. 5. The son of Eudamidas II., grandson of Archidamus IV., brother of Agis IV. On his brother's murder he fled to Messenia (241 B.C.). In 227 he was recalled by Cleomenes III., who was then reigning without a colleague, but shortly after his return he was assassinated. Polybius accuses Cleomenes of the murder, but Plutarch is probably right in saying that it was the work of those who had caused the death of Agis, and feared his brother's vengeance. of "orchella weed" Plutarch, Cleomenes, i. 5; Polybius v. 37, viii. 1; Niese, op. cit. ii. 304, 311. (M. N. T.) ARCHIL (a corruption of "orchil," Ital. oricello, the origin of which is unknown), a purple dye obtained from various species of lichens. Archil can be extracted from many species of the genera Roccella, Lecanora, Umbilicaria, Parmelia and others, but in practice two species of Roccella-R. tinctoria and R. fuciformis- are almost exclusively used. These, under the name or "dyer's moss," are obtained from Angola, on the west coast of Africa, where the most valuable kinds are gathered; from Cape Verde Islands; from Lima, on the west coast of South America; and from the Malabar coast of India. The colouring properties of the lichens do not exist in them ready formed, but are developed by the treatment to which they are subjected. A small proportion of a colourless, crystalline principle, termed orcinol (a dioxytoluene), is found in some, and in all a series of acid substances, erythric, lecanoric acids, &c. Orcinol in presence of oxygen and ammonia takes up nitrogen and becomes changed into a purple substance, orceine (CH,NO3), which is essentially the basis of all lichen dyes. Two other colouring-matters, azoerythin and erythroleinic acid, are sometimes present. Archil is prepared for the dyer's use in the form of a “liquor" (archil) and a (persis), and the latter, when dried and finely powdered, forms the "cudbear" of commerce, a dye formerly manufactured in Scotland from a native lichen, Lecanora tartarea. The manufacturing process consists in washing the weeds, which are then ground up with water to a thick paste. If archil paste is to be made this paste is mixed with a strong ammoniacal solution, and agitated in an iron cylinder heated by steam to about 140° F. till the desired shade is developed-a process which occupies several days. In the preparation of archil liquor the principles which yield the dye are separated from the ligneous tissue of the lichens, agitated with a hot ammoniacal solution, and exposed to the action of air. When potassium or sodium carbonate is added, a blue dye known as litmus, much used as an "indicator," is produced. French purple or lime lake is a lichen dye prepared by a modification of the archil process, and is a more brilliant and durable colour than the other. The dyeing of worsted and home-spun cloth with lichen dyes was formerly a very common domestic employment in Scotland; and to this day, in some of the outer islands, worsted continues to be dyed with "crottle," the name given to the lichens employed. " paste " ARCHILOCHUS, Greek lyric poet and writer of lampoons, was born at Paros, one of the Cyclades islands. The date of his birth is uncertain, but he probably flourished about 650 B.C.; according to some, about forty years earlier but certainly not before the reign of Gyges (687-652), whom he mentions in a well-known fragment. His father, Telesicles, who was of noble family, had conducted a colony to Thasos, in obedience to the command of the Delphic oracle. To this island Archilochus himself, hard pressed by poverty, afterwards removed. Another reason for leaving his native place was personal disappointment and indignation at the treatment he had received from Lycambes, a citizen of Paros, who had promised him his daughter Neobule in marriage, but had afterwards withdrawn his consent. Archilochus, taking advantage of the licence allowed at the feasts of Demeter, poured out his wounded feelings in unmerciful satire. He accused Lycambes of perjury, and his daughters of leading the most abandoned lives. Such was the effect produced by the ingenious mechanical contrivances which made him famous, his verses, that Lycambes and his daughters are said to have regarding them as beneath the dignity of pure science and even hanged themselves. At Thasos the poet passed some unhappy declining to leave any written record of them except in the case years; his hopes of wealth were disappointed; according to him, of the σpaipomoita (Sphere-making), as to which see below. Thasos was the meeting-place of the calamities of all Hellas. As, however, these machines impressed the popular imagination, The inhabitants were frequently involved in quarrels with their they naturally figure largely in the traditions about him. Thus neighbours, and in a war against the Saians-a Thracian tribe-he he devised for Hiero engines of war which almost terrified the threw away his shield and fled from the field of battle. He does Romans, and which protracted the siege of Syracuse for three not seem to have felt the disgrace very keenly, for, like Alcaeus years. There is a story that he constructed a burning mirror and Horace, he commemorates the event in a fragment in which which set the Roman ships on fire when they were within a bowhe congratulates himself on having saved his life, and says he shot of the wall. This has been discredited because it is not can easily procure another shield. After leaving Thasos, he is mentioned by Polybius, Livy or Plutarch; but it is probable said to have visited Sparta, but to have been at once banished that Archimedes had constructed some such burning instrument, from that city on account of his cowardice and the licentious though the connexion of it with the destruction of the Roman character of his works (Valerius Maximus vi. 3, externa 1). He fleet is more than doubtful. More important, as being doubtless next visited Siris, in lower Italy, a city of which he speaks very connected with the discovery of the principle in hydrostatics favourably. He then returned to his native place, and was slain which bears his name and the foundation by him of that whole in a battle against the Naxians by one Calondas or Corax, who science, is the story of Hiero's reference to him of the was cursed by the oracle for having slain a servant of the Muses. question whether a crown made for him and purporting The writings of Archilochus consisted of clegies, hymns-one to be of gold, did not actually contain a proportion of silver. of which used to be sung by the victors in the Olympic games According to one story, Archimedes was puzzled till one day, as he (Pindar, Olympia, ix. 1)—and of poems in the iambic and trochaic was stepping into a bath and observed the water running over, measures. To him certainly we owe the invention of iambic it occurred to him that the excess of bulk occasioned by the inpoetry and its application to the purposes of satire. The only troduction of alloy could be measured by putting the crown previous measures in Greek poetry had been the epic hexameter, and an equal weight of gold separately into a vessel filled with and its offshoot the elegiac metre; but the slow measured water, and observing the difference of overflow. He was so structure of hexameter verse was utterly unsuited to express overjoyed when this happy thought struck him that he ran the quick, light motions of satire. Archilochus made use of the home without his clothes, shouting eйpηка, eʊρŋка, “I have iambus and the trochee, and organized them into the two forms found it, I have found it." Similarly his pioneer work in of metre known as the iambic trimeter and the trochaic tetra- mechanics is illustrated by the story of his having said dós meter. The trochaic metre he generally used for subjects of a μοι ποῦ στῶ καὶ κινῶ τὴν γῆν (or as another version has it, serious nature; the iambic for satires. He was also the first in his dialect, nâ ßŵ kai kivŵ tàv yâv), "Give me a place to to make use of the arrangement of verses called the epode. stand and I (will) move the earth." Hiero asked him to give Horace in his metres to a great extent follows Archilochus an illustration of his contention that a very great weight (Epistles, i. 19. 23-35). All ancient authorities unite in praising could be moved by a very small force. He is said to have the poems of Archilochus, in terms which appear exaggerated fixed on a large and fully laden ship and to have used a mechanical (Longinus xiii. 3; Dio Chrysostom, Orationes, xxxiii.; Quintilian device by which Hiero was enabled to move it by himself: but x. i. 60; Cicero, Orator, i.). His verses seem certainly to have accounts differ as to the particular mechanical powers employed. possessed strength, flexibility, nervous vigour, and, beyond The water-screw which he invented (see below) was probably everything else, impetuous vehemence and energy. Horace devised in Egypt for the purpose of irrigating fields. (Ars Poetica, 79) speaks of the " rage " of Archilochus, and Hadrian calls his verses "raging iambics." By his countrymen he was reverenced as the equal of Homer, and statues of these two poets were dedicated on the same day. His poems were written in the old Ionic dialect. Fragments in Bergk, Poetae Lyrici Gracci; Liebel, Archilochi Reliquiae (1018); A. Hauvette-Besnault, Archiloque, sa vie et ses poésies (1905). ARCHIMANDRITE (from Gr. apxwv, a ruler, and uávopa, a fold or monastery), a title in the Greek Church applied to a superior abbot, who has the supervision of several abbots and monasteries, or to the abbot of some specially great and important monastery, the title for an ordinary abbot being hegumenos. The title occurs for the first time in a letter to Epiphanius, prefixed to his Panarium (c. 375), but the Lausiac History of Palladius may be evidence that it was in common use in the 4th century as applied to Pachomius (q.v.). In Russia the bishops are commonly selected from the archimandrites. The word occurs in the Regula Columbani (c. 7), and du Cange gives a few other cases of its use in Latin documents, but it never came into vogue in the West. Owing to intercourse with Greek and Slavonic Christianity, the title is sometimes to be met with in southern Italy and Sicily, and in Hungary and Poland. See the article in the Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie. ARCHIMEDES (c. 287-212 B.C.), Greek mathematician and inventor, was born at Syracuse, in Sicily. He was the son of Pheidias, an astronomer, and was on intimate terms with, if not related to, Hiero, king of Syracuse, and Gelo his son. He studied at Alexandria and doubtless met there Conon of Samos, whom he' admired as a mathematician and cherished as a friend, and to whom he was in the habit of communicating his discoveries before publication. On his return to his native city he devoted himself to mathematical research. He himself set no value on Archimedes died at the capture of Syracuse by Marcellus, 212 B.C. In the general massacre which followed the fall of the city, Archimedes, while engaged in drawing a mathematical figure on the sand, was run through the body by a Roman soldier. No blame attaches to the Roman general, Marcellus, since he had given orders to his men to spare the house and person of the sage; and in the midst of his triumph he lamented the death of so illustrious a person, directed an honourable burial to be given him, and befriended his surviving relatives. In accordance with the expressed desire of the philosopher, his tomb was marked by the figure of a sphere inscribed in a cylinder, the discovery of the relation between the volumes of a sphere and its circumscribing cylinder being regarded by him as his most valuable achievement. When Cicero was quaestor in Sicily (75 B.C.), he found the tomb of Archimedes, near the "Thus," Agrigentine gate, overgrown with thorns and briers. says Cicero (Tusc. Disp. v. c. 23. § 64)," would this most famous and once most learned city of Greece have remained a stranger to the tomb of one of its most ingenious citizens, had it not been discovered by a man of Arpinum." Works. The range and importance of the scientific labours of Archimedes will be best understood from a brief account of those writings which have come down to us; and it need only be added that his greatest work was in geometry, where he so extended the method of exhaustion as originated by Eudoxus, and followed by Euclid, that it became in his hands, though purely geometrical in form, actually equivalent in several cases to integration, as expounded remark applies to the finding of the area of a parabolic segment in the first chapters of our text-books on the integral calculus. This (mechanical solution) and of a spiral, the surface and volume of a sphere and of a segment thereof, and the volume of any segments of the solids of revolution of the second degree. The extant treatises are as follows: (1) On the Sphere and Cylinder (Περὶ σφαίρας καὶ κυλίνδρου) This treatise is in two books. dedicated to Dositheus, and deals |