exports, the market for these being the neighbouring island of | Margaret after her flight at Morpeth, and on her departure for St Thomas.

ANGULATE (Lat. angulus, an angle), shaped with corners or angles; an adjective used in botany and zoology for the shape of stems, leaves and wings.

London returned and made his peace with Albany in 1516. He met her once more at Berwick in June 1517, when Margaret returned to Scotland on Albany's departure in vain hopes of regaining the regency. Meanwhile, during Margaret's absence, Angus had formed a connexion with a daughter of the laird of Traquair. Margaret avenged his neglect of her by refusing to support his claims for power and by secretly trying through Albany to get a divorce. In Edinburgh Angus held his own against the attempts of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran, to dislodge him. But the return of Albany in 1521, with whom

ANGUS, EARLS OF. Angus was one of the seven original earldoms of the Pictish kingdom of Scotland, said to have been occupied by seven brothers of whom Angus was the eldest. The Celtic line ended with Matilda (f. 1240), countess of Angus in her own right, who married in 1243 Gilbert de Umfravill and founded the Norman line of three earls, which ended in 1381, the then holder of the title being summoned to the English parlia-Margaret now sided against her husband, deprived him of power. ment. Meanwhile John Stewart of Bonkyl, co. Berwick, had been created earl of Angus in a new line. This third creation ended with Margaret Stewart, countess of Angus in her own right, and widow of Thomas, 13th earl of Mar. By an irregular connexion with William, Ist earl of Douglas, who had married Mar's sister, she became the mother of George Douglas, 1st earl of Angus (c. 1380-1403), and secured a charter of her estates for her son, to whom in 1389 the title was granted by King Robert II. He was taken prisoner at Homildon Hill and died in England. The 5th earl was his great-grandson.

ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 5th earl of Angus (c. 1450-c. 1514), the famous "Bell the Cat," was born about 1450 and succeeded his father, George the 4th earl, in 1462 or 1463. In 1481 he was made warden of the east marches, but the next year he joined the league against James III. and his favourite Robert Cochrane at Lauder, where he earned his nickname by offering to bell the cat, i.e. to deal with the latter, beginning the attack upon him by pulling his gold chain off his neck and causing him with others of the king's favourites to be hanged. Subsequently he joined Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, in league with Edward IV. of England, on the 11th of February 1483, signing the convention at Westminster which acknowledged the overlordship of the English king. In March however they returned, outwardly at least, to their allegiance, and received pardons for their treason. Later Angus was one of the leaders in the rebellion against James in 1487 and 1488, which ended in the latter's death. He was made one of the guardians of the young king James IV. but soon lost influence, being superseded by the Homes and Hepburns, and the wardenship of the marches was given to Alexander Home. Though outwardly on good terms with James, he treacherously made a treaty with Henry VII. about 1489 or 1491, by which he undertook to govern his relations with James according to instructions from England, and to hand over Hermitage Castle, commanding the pass through Liddesdale into Scotland, on the condition of receiving English estates in compensation. In October 1491 he fortified his castle of Tantallon against James, but was obliged to submit and exchange his Liddesdale estate and Hermitage Castle for the lordship of Bothwell. In 1493 he was again in favour, received various grants of lands, and was made chancellor, which office he retained till 1498. In 1501 he was once more in disgrace and confined to Dumbarton Castle. After the disaster at Flodden in 1513, at which he was not present, but at which he lost his two eldest sons, Angus was appointed one of the counsellors of the queen regent. He died at the close of this year, or in 1514. He was married three times, and by his first wife had four sons and several daughters. His third son, Gavin Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, is separately noticed.

ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, the 6th earl (c. 1489-1557), son of George, master of Douglas, who was killed at Flodden, succeeded on his grandfather's death. In 1509 he had married Margaret (d. 1513), daughter of Patrick Hepburn, 1st earl of Bothwell; and in 1514 he married the queen dowager Margaret of Scotland, widow of James IV., and eldest sister of Henry VIII. By this latter act he stirred up the jealousy of the nobles and the opposition of the French party, and civil war broke out. He was superseded in the government on the arrival of John Stewart, duke of Albany, who was made regent. Angus withdrew to his estates in Forfarshire, while Albany besieged the queen at Stirling and got possession of the royal children; then he joined

The young

The regent took the government into his own hands; Angus was charged with high treason in December, and in March 1522 was sent practically a prisoner to France, whence he succeeded in escaping to London in 1524. He returned to Scotland in November with promises of support from Henry VIII., with whom he made a close alliance. Margaret, however, refused to have anything to do with her husband. On the 23rd, therefore, | Angus forced his way into Edinburgh, but was fired upon by Margaret and retreated to Tantallon. He now organized a large party of nobles against Margaret with the support of Henry VIII., and in February 1525 they entered Edinburgh and called a parliament. Angus was made a lord of the articles, was included in the council of regency, bore the king's crown on the opening of the session, and with Archbishop Beaton held the chief power. In March he was appointed lieutenant of the marches, and suppressed the disorder and anarchy on the border. In July the guardianship of the king was entrusted to him for a fixed period till the 1st of November, but he refused at its close to retire, and advancing to Linlithgow put to flight Margaret and his opponents. He now with his followers engrossed all the power, succeeded in gaining over some of his antagonists, including Arran and the Hamiltons, and filled the public offices with Douglases, he himself becoming chancellor. "None that time durst strive against a Douglas nor Douglas's man."" king James, now fourteen, was far from content under the tutelage of Angus, but he was closely guarded, and several attempts to effect his liberation were prevented, Angus completely defeating Lennox, who had advanced towards Edinburgh with 10,000 men in August, and subsequently taking Stirling. His successes were consummated by a pacification with Beaton, and in 1527 and 1528 he was busy in restoring order through the country. In the latter year, on the 11th of March, Margaret succeeded in obtaining her divorce from Angus, and about the end of the month she and her lover, Henry Stewart, were besieged at Stirling. A few weeks later, however, James succeeded in escaping from Angus's custody, took refuge with Margaret and Arran at Stirling, and immediately proscribed Angus and all the Douglases, forbidding them to come within seven miles of his person. Angus, having fortified himself in Tantallon, was attainted and his lands confiscated. Repeated attempts of James to subdue the fortress failed, and on one occasion Angus captured the royal artillery, but at length it was given up as a condition of the truce between England and Scotland, and in May 1529 Angus took refuge with Henry, obtained a pension and took an oath of allegiance, Henry engaging to make his restoration a condition of peace. Angus had been chiefly guided in his intrigues with England by his brother, Sir George Douglas of Pittendriech (d. 1552), master of Angus, a far cleverer diplomatist than himself. His life and lands were also declared forfeit, as were those of his uncle, Archibald Douglas of Kilspindie (d. 1535), who had been a friend of James and was known by the nickname of "Greysteel." These took refuge in exile. James avenged himself on such Douglases as lay within his power. Angus's third sister Janet, Lady Glamis, was summoned to answer the charge of communicating with her brothers, and on her failure to appear her estates were forfeited. In 1537 she was tried for conspiring against the king's life. She was found guilty and burnt on the Castle Hill, Edinburgh, on the 17th of July 1537. Her innocence 'Lindsay of Pitscottie (1814), ii. 314.

or smaller portion (the so-called Upper Duchy or Ballenstedt) | courts of the duchy lies to the appeal court at Naumburg in is also enclosed by the two latter districts and, for a distance Prussian Saxony. of 5 m. on the west, by the duchy of Brunswick. The western History -During the 11th century the greater part of Anhalt portion of the territory is undulating and in the extreme south- was included in the duchy of Saxony, and in the 12th century west, where it forms part of the Harz range, mountainous, the it came under the rule of Albert the Bear, margrave of BrandenRamberg peak attaining a height of 1900 ft. From the Harzburg. Albert was descended from Albert, count of Ballenstedt, the country gently shelves down to the Saale; and between this whose son Esico (d. 1059 or 1060) appears to have been the first river and the Elbe there lies a fine tract of fertile country. The to bear the title of count of Anhalt. Esico's grandson, Otto the portion of the duchy lying east of the Elbe is mostly a flat Rich, count of Ballenstedt, was the father of Albert the Bear, sandy plain, with extensive pine forests, though interspersed, at by whom Anhalt was united with the mark of Brandenburg. intervals, by bog-land and rich pastures. The Elbe is the chief When Albert died in 1170, his son Bernard, who received the river, and intersecting the eastern portion of the duchy, from title of duke of Saxony in 1180, became count of Anhalt. Bernard east to west, receives at Rosslau the waters of the Mulde. The died in 1212, and Anhalt, separated from Saxony, passed to his navigable Saale takes a northerly direction through the western son Henry, who in 1218 took the title of prince and was the real portion of the eastern part of the territory and receives, on founder of the house of Anhalt. On Henry's death in 1252 his the right, the Fuhne and, on the left, the Wipper and the Bode. three sons partitioned the principality and founded respectively The climate is on the whole mild, though somewhat inclement the lines of Aschersleben, Bernburg and Zerbst. The family in the higher regions to the south-west. The area of the duchy is ruling in Aschersleben became extinct in 1315, and this district 906 sq. m., and the population in 1905 amounted to 328,007, was subsequently incorporated with the neighbouring bishopric of a ratio of about 351 to the square mile. The country is Halberstadt. The last prince of the line of Anhalt-Bernburg died divided into the districts of Dessau, Cöthen, Zerbst, Bernburg in 1468 and his lands were inherited by the princes of the sole and Ballenstedt, of which that of Bernburg is the most, and remaining line, that of Anhalt-Zerbst. The territory belonging that of Ballenstedt the least, populated. Of the towns, four, to this branch of the family had been divided in 1396, and after viz. Dessau, Bernburg, Cöthen and Zerbst, have populations the acquisition of Bernburg Prince George I. made a further exceeding 20,000. The inhabitants of the duchy, who mainly partition of Zerbst. Early in the 16th century, however, owing belong to the upper Saxon race, are, with the exception of about to the death or abdication of several princes, the family had 12,000 Roman Catholics and 1700 Jews, members of the Evan- become narrowed down to the two branches of Anhalt-Cöthen gelical (Union) Church. The supreme ecclesiastical authority and Anhalt-Dessau. Wolfgang, who became prince of Anhaltis the consistory in Dessau; while a synod of 39 members, Cöthen in 1508, was a stalwart adherent of the Reformation, elected for six years, assembles at periods to deliberate on and after the battle of Mühlberg in 1547 was placed under the internal matters touching the organization of the church. The ban and deprived of his lands by the emperor Charles V. After Roman Catholics are under the bishop of Paderborn. There the peace of Passau in 1552 he bought back his principality, are within the duchy four grammar schools (gymnasia), five but as he was childless he surrendered it in 1562 to his kinsmen semi-classical and modern schools, a teachers' seminary and the princes of Anhalt-Dessau. Ernest I. of Anhalt-Dessau four high-grade girls' schools. Of the whole surface, land under (d. 1516) left three sons, John II., George III., and Joachim, tillage amounts to about 60, meadowland to 7 and forest who ruled their lands together for many years, and who, like to 25%. The chief crops are corn (especially wheat), fruit, Prince Wolfgang, favoured the reformed doctrines, which thus vegetables, potatoes, beet, tobacco, flax, linseed and hops. became dominant in Anhalt. About 1546 the three brothers The land is well cultivated, and the husbandry on the royal divided their principality and founded the lines of Zerbst, domains and the large estates especially so. The pastures on Plötzkau and Dessau. This division, however, was only the banks of the Elbe yield cattle of excellent quality. The temporary, as the acquisition of Cöthen, and a series of deaths forests are well stocked with game, such as deer and wild boar, among the ruling princes, enabled Joachim Ernest, a son of John and the open country is well supplied with partridges. The rivers II., to unite the whole of Anhalt under his rule in 1570. yield abundant fish, salmon (in the Elbe), sturgeon and lampreys. Joachim Ernest died in 1586 and his five sons ruled the land The country is rich in lignite, and salt works are abundant. in common until 1603, when Anhalt was again divided, and the Of the manufactures of Anhalt, the chief are its sugar factories, lines of Dessau, Bernburg, Plötzkau, Zerbst and Cöthen were distilleries, breweries and chemical works. Commerce is brisk, refounded. The principality was ravaged during the Thirty especially in raw products- corn, cattle, timber or wool. Coal Years' War, and in the earlier part of this struggle Christian Í. (lignite), guano, oil and bricks are also articles of export. The of Anhalt-Bernburg took an important part. In 1635 an trade of the country is furthered by its excellent roads, its navig-arrangement was made by the various princes of Anhalt, which able rivers and its railways (165 m.), which are worked in connexion with the Prussian system. There is a chamber of commerce in Dessau.

Constitution. The duchy, by virtue of a fundamental law, proclaimed on the 17th of September 1859 and subsequently modified by various decrees, is a constitutional monarchy. The duke, who bears the title of "Highness," wields the executive power while sharing the legislation with the estates. The diet (Landtag) is composed of thirty-six members, of whom two are appointed by the duke, eight are representatives of landowners paying the highest taxes, two of the highest assessed members of the commercial and manufacturing classes, fourteen of the other electors of the towns and ten of the rural districts. The representatives are chosen for six years by indirect vote and must have completed their twenty-fifth year. The duke governs through a minister of state, who is the praeses of all the departments-finance, home affairs, education, public worship and statistics. The budget estimates for the financial year 19051906 placed the expenditure of the estate at £1,323,437 public debt amounted on the 30th of June 1904 to £226,300. By convention with Prussia of 1867 the Anhalt troops form a contingent of the Prussian army. Appeal from the lower

The

gave a certain authority to the eldest member of the family, who was thus able to represent the principality as a whole. This proceeding was probably due to the necessity of maintaining an appearance of unity in view of the disturbed state of European politics. In 1665 the branch of Anhalt-Cöthen became extinct, and according to a family compact this district was inherited by Lebrecht of Anhalt-Plötzkau, who surrendered Plötzkau to Bernburg,and took the title of prince of Anhalt-Cöthen. In the same year the princes of Anhalt decided that if any branch of the family became extinct its lands should be equally divided between the remaining branches. This arrangement was carried out after the death of Frederick Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst in 1793, and Zerbst was divided between the three remaining princes. During these years the policy of the different princes was marked, perhaps intentionally, by considerable uniformity. Once or twice Calvinism was favoured by a prince, but in general the house was loyal to the doctrines of Luther. The growth of Prussia provided Anhalt with a formidable neighbour, and the establishment and practice of primogeniture by all branches of the family prevented further divisions of the principality. In 1806 Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg was created a duke by the emperor Francis II., and after the dissolution of the Empire each of the three princes

Anhalt-Cöthen was ruled without division by a succession of princes, prominent among whom was Louis (d. 1650), who was both a soldier and a scholar, and after the death of Prince Charles at the battle of Semlin in 1789 it passed to his son Augustus II. This prince sought to emulate the changes which had recently been made in France by dividing Cöthen into two departments and introducing the Code Napoléon. Owing to his extravagance he left a large amount of debt to his nephew and successor, Louis II., and on this account the control of the finances was transferred from the prince to the estates. Under Louis's successor Ferdinand, who was a Roman Catholic and brought the Jesuits into Anhalt, the state of the finances grew worse and led to the interference of the king of Prussia and to the appointment of a Prussian official. When the succeeding prince, Henry, died in 1847, this family became extinct, and according to an arrangement between the lines of Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Bernburg, Cöthen was added to Dessau.

Anhalt-Bernburg had been weakened by partitions, but its princes had added several districts to their lands, and in 1812, on the extinction of a cadet branch, it was again united under a single ruler. The feeble rule of Alexander Charles, who became duke in 1834, and the disturbed state of Europe in the following decade, led to considerable unrest, and in 1849 Bernburg was occupied by Prussian troops. A number of abortive attempts were made to change the government, and as Alexander Charles was unlikely to leave any children, Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau took some part in the affairs of Bernburg. Eventually in 1859 a new constitution was established for Bernburg and Dessau jointly, and when Alexander Charles died in 1863 both were united under the rule of Leopold.

took this title. Joining the Confederation of the Rhine in 1807, to the end of the war of 1697, the affairs of the principality being they supported Napoleon until 1813, when they transferred their managed chiefly by his mother, Princess Henriette Catherine of allegiance to the allies, in 1815 they became members of the Orange In 1698 he married Anna Luise Föse, an apothecary's Germanic Confederation, and in 1828 joined, somewhat reluct-daughter of Dessau, in spite of his mother's long and earnest antly, the Prussian Zollvercin. opposition, and subsequently he procured for her the rank of a princess from the emperor (1701). Their married life was long and happy, and the princess acquired an influence over the stern nature of her husband which she never ceased to exert on behalf of his subjects, and after the death of Leopold's mother she performed the duties of regent when he was absent on campaign Often, too, she accompanied him into the field. Leopold's career as a soldier in important commands begins with the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession. He had made many improvements in the Prussian army, notably the introduction of the iron ramrod about 1700, and he now took the field at the head of a Prussian corps on the Rhine, serving at the sieges of Kaiserswerth and Venlo. In the following year (1703), having obtained the rank of lieutenant-general, Leopold took part in the siege of Bonn and distinguished himself very greatly in the battle of Höchstädt, in which the Austrians and their allies were defeated by the French under Marshal Villars (September 20, 1703). In the campaign of 1704 the Prussian contingent served under Prince Louis of Baden and subsequently under Eugene, and Leopold himself won great glory by his conduct at Blenheim. In 1705 he was sent with a Prussian corps to join Prince Eugene in Italy, and on the 16th of August he displayed his bravery at the hard-fought battle of Cassano. In the following year he added to his reputation in the battle of Turin, where he was the first to enter the hostile entrenchments (September 7, 1706). He served in one more campaign in Italy, and then went with Eugene to join Marlborough in the Netherlands, being present in 1709 at the siege of Tournay and the battle of Malplaquet. In 1710 he succeeded to the command of the whole Prussian contingent at the front, and in 1712, at the particular desire of the crown prince, Frederick William, who had served with him as a volunteer, he was made a general field marshal. Shortly before this he had executed a coup de main on the castle of Mörs, which was held by the Dutch in defiance of the claims of the king of Prussia to the possession. The operation was effected with absolute precision and the castle was seized without a shot being fired. In the earlier part of the reign of Frederick William I., the prince of Dessau was one of the most influential members of the Prussian governing circle. In the war with Sweden (1715) he accompanied the king to the front, commanded an army of 40,000 men, and met and defeated Charles XII. in a severe battle on the island of Rügen (November 16). His conduct of the siege of Stralsund which followed was equally skilful, and the great results of the war to Prussia were largely to be attributed to his leadership in the campaign. In the years of peace, and especially after a court quarrel (1725) and duel with General von Grumbkow, he devoted himself to the training of the Prussian army. The reputation it had gained in the wars of 1675 to 1715, though good, gave no hint of its coming glory, and it was even in 1740 accounted one of the minor armies of Europe. That it proved, when put to the test, to be by far the best military force existing, may be taken as the summary result of Leopold's work. The "Old Dessauer" was one of the sternest disciplinarians in an age of stern discipline, and the technical training of the infantry, under his hand, made them superior to all others in the proportion of five to three (see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE). He was essentially an infantry soldier; in his time artillery did not decide battles, but he suffered the cavalry service, in which he felt little interest, to be comparatively neglected, with results which appeared at Mollwitz. Frederick the Great formed the cavalry of Hohenfriedberg and Leuthen himself, but had it not been for the incomparable infantry trained by the "Old Dessauer" he would never have had the opportunity of doing so. Thus Leopold, heartily supported by Frederick William, who was himself called the great drill-master of Europe, turned to good account the twenty years following the peace with Sweden. During this time two incidents in his career call for special mention: first, his intervention in the case of the crown prince Frederick, who was condemned to death for desertion, and his continued and finally successful efforts to

Anhalt-Dessau had been divided in 1632, but was quickly reunited; and in 1693 it came under the rule of Leopold I. (see ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD I., PRINCE OF), the famous soldier who was generally known as the "Old Dessauer." The sons of Leopold's eldest son were excluded from the succession on account of the marriage of their father being morganatic, and the principality passed in 1747 to his second son, Leopold II. The unrest of 1848 spread to Dessau, and led to the interference of the Prussians and to the establishment of the new constitution in 1859. Leopold IV., who reigned from 1817 to 1871, had the satisfaction in 1863 of reuniting the whole of Anhalt under his rule. He took the title of duke of Anhalt, summoned one Landtag for the whole of the duchy, and in 1866 fought for Prussia against Austria. Subsequently a quarrel over the possession of the ducal estates between the duke and the Landtag broke the peace of the duchy, but this was settled in 1872. In 1871 Anhalt became a state of the German Empire. Leopold IV. was followed by his son Frederick I., and on the death of this prince in 1904 his son Frederick II. became duke of Anhalt.

AUTHORITIES.-F. Knoke, Anhaltische Geschichte (Dessau, 1893); G. Krause, Urkunden, Aktenstücke und Briefe zur Geschichte der anhaltischen Lande und ihrer Fürsten unter dem Drucke des 30 jährigen Krieges (Leipzig, 1861-1866); O. von Heinemann, Codex diplomaticus Anhaltinus (Dessau, 1867-1883); Siebigk, Das Herzogthum Anhalt historisch, geographisch und statistisch dargestellt (Dessau, 1867).

ANHALT-DESSAU, LEOPOLD I., PRINCE OF (1676-1747), called the "Old Dessauer" (Alter Dessauer), general field marshal in the Prussian army, was the only surviving son of John George II., prince of Anhalt-Dessau, and was born on the 3rd of July 1676 at Dessau. From his earliest youth he was devoted to the profession of arms, for which he educated himself physically and mentally. He became colonel of a Prussian regiment in 1693, and in the same year his father's death placed him at the head of his own principality; thereafter, during the whole of his long life, he performed the duties of a sovereign prince and a Prussian officer. His first campaign was that of 1695 in the Netherlands, in which he was present at the siege of Namur. He remained in the field

secure Frederick's reinstatement in the Prussian army, and I (Dessau, 1860 and 1876); Hosäus, Zur Biographie des Fürsten secondly, his part in the War of the Polish Succession on the Rhine, Dessauers Leben und Taten (3rd ed., Dessau, 1903); Briefe König Leopold von Anhalt-Dessau (Dessau, 1876); Würdig, Des Alten where he served under his old chief Eugene and held the office of Friedrich Wilhelms I. an den Fürsten L. (Berlin, 1905). field marshal of the Empire.