noted, rides on purely chivalric ventures, such as afding distressed | to the elaboration of the material supplied by the chronicles, the damsels, seeking the Grail, &c. His expeditions are all more or less warlike. The story of his youth belongs, as Alfred Nutt (Folk-lore, vol. iv.) has shown, to the group of tales classified as the Aryan Expulsion and Return formula, found in all Aryan lands. Numerous parallels exist between the Arthurian and early Irish heroic cycles, notably the Fenian or Ossianic. This Fenian cycle is very closely connected with the Tuatha de Danaan, the Celtic deities of vegetation and increase; recent research has shown that two notable features of the Arthurian

He now threw himself with ardour into the French cause, and persuaded his brother, John V. of Brittany, to conclude with Charles VII. the treaty of Saumur (October 7, 1425). But though he saw clearly enough the measures necessary for success, he lacked the means to carry them out. a whole series of reverses; and at court, where his rough and In the field he met with overbearing manners made him disliked, his influence was overshadowed by that of a series of incompetent favourites. The peace concluded between the duke of Brittany and the English in September 1427 led to his expulsion from the court, where Georges de la Trémoille, whom he himself had recommended to the king, remained supreme for six years, during which Richmond tried in vain to overthrow him. In the meantime, in June 1429, he joined Joan of Arc at Orleans, and fought in several battles under her banner, till the influence of La Trémoille forced his withdrawal from the army. On the 5th of March 1432 Charles VII. concluded with him and with Brittany the treaty of Rennes; but it was not until June of the following year that La Trémoille was overthrown. Arthur now resumed the war against the English, and at the same time took vigorous measures against the plundering bands of soldiers and peasants known as routiers or écorcheurs. On the 20th of September 1435, mainly as a result of his diplomacy, was signed the treaty of Arras between Charles VII and the duke of Burgundy, to which France owed her salvation.

On the 13th of April 1436, Arthur took Paris from the English; but he was ill seconded by the king, and hampered by the necessity for leading frequent expeditions against the écorcheurs; it was not till May 1444 that the armistice of Tours gave him leisure to carry out the reorganization of the army which he had long projected. He now created the compagnies d'ordonnance, and endeavoured to organize the militia of the francs archers. This reform had its effect in the struggles that followed. In alliance with his nephew, the duke of Brittany, he reconquered, during September and October 1449, nearly all the Cotentin; on the 15th of April 1450 he gained over the English the battle of Formigny; and during the year he recovered for France the whole of Normandy, which for the next six or seven years it was his task to defend from English attacks. nephew Peter II., on the 22nd of September 1457, he became On the death of his duke of Brittany, and though retaining his office of constable of France, he refused, like his predecessors, to do homage to the French king for his duchy. He reigned little more than a year, dying on the 26th of December 1458, and was succeeded by his nephew Francis II., son of his brother Richard, count of Etampes.

Arthur was three times married: (1) to Margaret of Burgundy, duchess of Guienne (d. 1442); (2) to Jeanne d'Albret, daughter of Charles II. of Albret (d. 1444); (3) to Catherine of Luxemburg, daughter of Peter of Luxemburg, count of St Pol, who survived him. He left no legitimate children.

683

son Chester was born not in Vermont, but in Canada, and was College as a sophomore, and graduated with honour in 1848. therefore ineligible for the presidency. Chester entered Union He then became a schoolmaster, at the same time studying law. following year was admitted to the bar. In 1853 he entered a law office in New York city, and in the lawyer began with his connexion with the famous "Lemmon slave case,' His reputation as a he secured a decision from the highest state courts that slaves ," in which, as one of the special counsel for the state, brought into New York while in transit between two slave states were ipso facto free. In another noted case, in 1855, he obtained as whites on the street railways of New York city. In politics a decision that negroes were entitled to the same accommodations he was actively associated from the outset with the Republican party. When the Civil War began he held the position of engineer-in-chief on Governor Edwin D. Morgan's staff, and afterwards became successively acting quartermaster-general, inspector-general, and quartermaster-general of the state troops, in which capacities he showed much administrative efficiency. At the close of Governor Morgan's term, on the 31st of December 1862, General Arthur resumed the practice of his profession, remaining active, however, in party politics in New York city. In November 1871 he was appointed by President U. S. Grant collector of customs for the port of New York. The customthe "spoils system "; and though General Arthur admitted that house had long been conspicuous for the most flagrant abuses of the evils existed and that they rendered efficient administration impossible, he made no extensive reforms. In 1877 President Rutherford B. Hayes began the reform of the civil service with the New York custom-house. A non-partisan commission, appointed by Secretary John Sherman, recommended sweeping changes. The president demanded the resignation of Arthur and his two principal subordinates, George H. Sharpe, the surveyor, and Alonzo B. Cornell, the naval officer, of the Port. General Arthur refused to resign on the ground that to retire claimed that as the abuses were inherent in a widespread system "under fire 22 would be to acknowledge wrong-doing, and he should not be made to bear the responsibility alone. His successfully; but on the 11th of July 1878, during a recess of cause was espoused by Senator Roscoe Conkling, for a time the Senate, the collector was removed, and in January 1879, after another severe struggle, this action received the approval of the Senate. In 1880 General Arthur was a delegate at large from New York to the Republican national convention. In common with the rest of the "Stalwarts," he worked hard for triumph of James A. Garfield, the necessity of conciliating the the nomination of Gen. U. S. Grant for a third term. Upon the defeated faction led to the hasty acceptance of Arthur for the second place on the ticket. His nomination was coldly received by the public; and when, after his election and accession, he Garfield over the New York patronage, the impression was actively engaged on behalf of Conkling in the great conflict with widespread that he was unworthy of his position. Upon the Arthur took the oath as his successor. death of President Garfield, on the 19th of September 1881, expectation, his appointments were as a rule unexceptionable, and he earnestly promoted the Pendleton law for the reform of Contrary to the general the civil service. His use of the veto in 1882 in the cases of a Chinese Immigration Bill (prohibiting immigration of Chinese for twenty years) and a River and Harbour Bill (appropriating over $18,000,000, to be expended on many insignificant as well as important streams) confirmed the favourable impression administration were the passage of the Tariff Act of 1883 and which had been made. of the "Edmunds Law" prohibiting polygamy in the territories, The most important events of his and the completion of three great trans-continental railwaysthe Southern Pacific, the Northern Pacific, and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé. His administration was lacking in political his policy was sane and dignified. In 1884 he allowed his name situations of a dramatic character, but on all questions that arose. but he was easily defeated by the friends of James G. Blame. to be presented for renomination in the Republican convention.

AUTHORITIES.-The main source for the life of Duke Arthur III. is the chronicle of Guillaume Gruel (c. 1410-1474-1482). Gruel entered the service of the earl of Richmond about 1425, shared in all his campaigns, and lived with him on intimate terms. chronicle covers the whole period of the duke's life, but the earlier The part, up to 1425, is much less full and important than the later, which is based on Gruel's personal knowledge and observation. In spite of a perhaps exaggerated admiration for his hero, Gruel displays in his work so much good faith, insight and originality that he is accepted as a thoroughly trustworthy authority. It was first published at Paris in 1622. Of the numerous later editions, the best is that of Achille le Vavasseur, Chronique d'Arthur de Richemont (Paris, 1890). See also E. Cosneau, Le Connétable de Richemont (Paris, 1886); G. du Fresne de Beaucourt, Histoire de Charles VII. (Paris, 1881, seq.).

ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830-1886), twenty-first president of the United States, was born in Fairfield, Vermont, on the 5th of October 1830. His father, William Arthur (17961875), when eighteen years of age, emigrated from Co. Antrim, Ireland, and, after teaching in various places in Vermont and Lower Canada, became a Baptist minister. had married Malvina Stone, an American girl who lived at the William Arthur time of the marriage in Canada, and the numerous changes of the family residence afforded a basis for allegations in 1880 that the

At the expiration of his term he resumed his residence in New | Wace and Layamon (see ARTHUR), poetic: the works of York city, where he died on the 18th of November 1886.rar Chrétien de Troyes, Thomas, Raoul de Houdenc and others (see For an account of his administration see UNITED STATES: History. GAWAIN, PERCEVAL, TRISTAN, and the writers named above); ARTHURIAN LEGEND. By the "Arthurian legend," or Matière de Bretagne, we mean the subject-matter of that import- LANCELOT, MERLIN, TRISTAN). Of these three branches the prose: the largest and most important group (see GRAIL, ant body of medieval literature known as the Arthurian cycle prose romances offer the most insuperable problems; none can (see ARTHUR). The period covered by the texts in their present be dated with any certainty; all are of enormous length; and form represents, roughly speaking, the century 1150-1250. The all have undergone several redactions. Of not one do we as yet History of Nennius is, of course, considerably earlier, and that of possess a critical and comparative text, and in the absence of Geoffrey of Monmouth somewhat antedates 1150 (1136), but such texts the publication of any definite and detailed theory as with these exceptions the dates above given will be found to cover the composition of all our extant texts. to the evolution and relative position of the separate branches of in extent, and in so chaotic a condition, that the construction the Arthurian cycle is to be deprecated. The material is so vast of any such theory is only calculated to invite refutation and discredit

As to the origin of this Matière de Bretagne, and the circumstances under which it became a favourite theme for literary treatment, two diametrically opposite theories are held. One body of scholars, headed by Professor Wendelin Förster of Bonn, while admitting that, so far as any historic basis can be traced, the events recorded must have happened on insular ground, maintain that the knowledge of these events, and their romantic development, are due entirely to the Bretons of the continent. The British who fled before the Teutonic and Scandinavian invasions of the 6th and 8th centuries, had carried with them to Armorica, and fondly cherished, the remembrance of Arthur and his deeds, which in time had become interwoven with traditions of purely Breton origin. On the other side of the Channel, i.c. in Arthur's own land, these memories had died out, or at most survived only as the faint echo of historic tradition. Through the medium of French-speaking Bretons these tales came to the cognizance of Northern French poets, notably Chrétien de Troyes, who wove them into romances. According to Professor Förster there were no Arthurian romances previous to Chrétien, and equally, of course, no insular romantic tradition. This theory reposes mainly on the supposed absence of pre-Chrétien poems, and on the writings of Professor H. Zimmer, who derives the Arthurian names largely from Breton roots. This represents the prevailing standpoint of German scholars, and may be called the "continental" theory. In opposition to this the school of which the late Gaston Paris was the leading, and most brilliant, representative, maintains that the Arthurian tradition, romantic equally with historic, was preserved in Wales through the medium of the bards, was by them communicated to their Norman conquerors, worked up into poems by the AngloNormans, and by them transmitted to the continental poets. This, the "insular " theory, in spite of its inherent probability, has hitherto been at a disadvantage through lack of positive evidence, but in a recently acquired MS. of the British Museum, Add. 36614, we hnd the first continuator of the Perceval, Wauchier de Denain, quoting as authority for stories of Gawain a certain Bleheris, whom he states to have been "born and bred in Wales." The identity of this Bleheris with the Bledhericus mentioned by Giraldus Cambrensis as Famosus ille fabulator, living at a bygone and unspecified date, and with the Bréri quoted by Thomas as authority for the Tristan story, has been fully accepted by leading French scholars. Further, on the evidence of certain MSS. of the Perceval, notably the Paris MS. (Bibl. Nat. 1450), it is clear that Chrétien was using, and using freely, the work of a predecessor, large fragments of which have been preserved by the copyists who completed his unfinished work The evidence of recent discoveries is all in favour of the insular, or French, view.

So far as the character, as distinguished from the provenance, of this subject-matter is concerned, it is largely of folk-lore origin, representing the working over of traditions, in some cases (as e.g. in the account of Arthur's birth and upbringing) common to all the Aryan peoples, in others specifically Celtic. Thus there are a number of parallels between the Arthurian and the Irish heroic cycles, the precise nature of which has yet to be determined. So far as Arthur himself is concerned these parallels are with the Fenian, or Ossianic, cycle, in the case of Gawain with the Ultonian.

In its literary form the cycle falls into three groups: pseudohistoric: the Histories of Nennius and Geoffrey, the Brut of

Paris's manual La Littérature française au moyen âge (new and revised edition, 1905). See also the introduction to vol. xxx. of Histoire The best general study of the cycle is to be found in Gaston littéraire de la France. For the theories as to origin, see the Introductions to Professor Förster's editions of the poems of Chrétien de Troyes, notably that to vol. iv., Der Karrenritter, which is a long and elaborate restating of his position. Also Professor H. Zimmer's view, Ferd. Lot's "Études sur la provenance du cycle arthurien," Romania, vols. xxiv-xxviii., are very valuable. For a popular articles in Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 12 and 20. treatment of the subject, cf. Nos. i. and iv. of Popular Studies in For the Insular Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature), is a most useful Romance and Folk-lore (Nutt). Robert Huntington Fletcher's summary. The Arthurian Matter in the Chronicles (vol. x. of Harvard is a plant belonging to the natural order Compositae, having ARTICHOKE. The common artichoke, Cynara, scolymus, some resemblance to a large thistle. It has long been esteemed (J. L. W.) as a culinary vegetable; the parts chiefly employed being the immature receptacle or floret disk, with the lower part of the surrounding leaf-scales, which are known as "artichoke bottoms." In Italy the receptacles, dried, are largely used in soups; those of the cultivated plant as Carciofo domestico, and of the wild variety as Carciofo spinoso.

plant belonging to the same order, cultivated for its tubers. The Jerusalem artichoke, Helianthus tuberosus, is a distinct It closely resembles the sunflower, and its popular name is a corruption of the Italian Girasole Articiocco, the sunflower artichoke. It is a native of Canada and the north-eastern United States, and was cultivated by the aborigines. The tubers are rich in the carbohydrate inulin and in sugar.

or arciciocco, modern carciofo; these words come, through the The name is derived from the northern Italian articiocco, Spanish, from the Arabic al-kharshuf. False etymology has corrupted the word in many languages: it has been derived in English from "choke," and "heart," or the Latin hortus, a garden; and in French, the form artichaut has been connected with chaud, hot, and chou, a cabbage.

that which connects two parts together, and so transferred to ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint), a term primarily for the parts thus joined, thus the word is used of the separate clauses or heads in contracts, treaties or statutes and the like; of a literary composition on some specific subject in a periodical; or of particular commodities, as in "articles of trade and commerce." It appears also in the phrase "in the article of death" to translate in articulo mortis, at the moment of death. In grammar the term is used of the adjectives which state the exa name applies; the indefinite article denoting one or any of tension of a substantive, i.e. the number of individuals to which a particular class, the definite denoting a particular member of a class.

regulations for the internal management of a joint stock company ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION, in English company law, the registered under the Companies Acts. They are, in fact, the terms of the partnership agreed upon by the shareholders among themselves. They regulate such matters as the transfer and forfeiture of shares, calls upon shares, the appointment and meetings of the shareholders, votes, dividends, the keeping and audit of accounts, and other such matters. In regard to these qualification of directors, their powers and proceedings, general

HISTORICAL SKETCH

internal regulations the legislature has left the company free | fortifications grow up around them, or the deficiencies of a field to adopt whatever terms of association it chooses. It has army in artillery may be made good from the matériel, more furnished in the schedule to the Companies Act 1862 (Table A), frequently still from the personnel, of the fortress artillery. a model or specimen set of regulations, but their adoption, Thus it may happen that mobile artillery becomes immobile wholly or in part, is optional; only if a company does not and vice versa. But under normal circumstances the principle of register articles of its own these statutory regulations are to classification indicated is maintained in all organized military apply. When, as is commonly the case, a company decides to forces. have articles of its own framing, such articles must be expressed in separate paragraphs, numbered arithmetically, and signed by the subscribers of the memorandum of association. They must also be printed, stamped like a deed, and attested. When so perfected, they are to be delivered, with the memorandum of association, to the registrar of joint stock companies, who is to retain and register them. The articles of association thereupon become a public document, which any person may inspect on payment of a fee of one shilling. This has important consequences, because every person dealing with the company is presumed to be acquainted with its constitution, and to have read its articles. The articles, also, upon registration, bind the company and its members to the same extent as if each member had subscribed his name and affixed his seal to them. (See also MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION; COMPANY; INCORPORATION.)

1. Early Artillery.-Mechanical appliances for throwing projectiles were produced early in the history of organized warfare, and " engines invented by cunning men to shoot arrows and great stones are mentioned in the Old Testament. These were continually improved, and, under the various names of catapulta, balista, onager, trébuchet, &c., were employed throughout the ancient and medieval periods of warfare. The machines finally produced were very powerful, and, even when a propelling agent so strong as gunpowder was discovered and applied, the supersession of the older weapons was not effected suddenly nor without considerable opposition. The date of the first employment of cannon cannot be established with any certainty, but there is good evidence to show that the Germans used guns at the siege of Cividale in Italy (1331). The terms of a commission given (1414) by Henry V. to his magister operationum, ingeniarum, show that the organization of artillery establishments was grafted upon that which was already in existence for the service of the old-fashioned machines. Previously to this it is recorded that of some 340 men forming the ordnance establishment of Edward III. in 1344 only 12 were artillerymen and gunners. Two years later, at Crecy, it is said, the English brought guns into the open field for the first time. At the siege of Harfleur (1415) the ordnance establishment included 25 master gunners" and 50 "servitour gunners." The " gunner" appears to have been the captain of the gun, with general charge of the guns and stores, and the special duty of laying and firing the piece in action.

In the United States, articles of association are any instrument in writing which sets forth the purposes, the terms and conditions upon which a body of persons have united for the prosecu-et gunnarum ac aliarum ordinationum, one Nicholas Merbury, tion of a joint enterprise. When this instrument is duly executed and filed, the law gives it the force and effects of a charter of incorporation.

ARTICULATA, a zoological name now obsolete, applied by Cuvier to animals, such as insects and worms, in which the body displays a jointed structure. (See ARTHROPODA.)

ARTICULATION (from Lat. articulare, to divide into joints), the act of joining together; in anatomy the junction of the bones (see JOINTS); in botany the point of attachment and separation of the deciduous parts of a plant, such as a leaf, The word is also used for division into distinct parts, as of human speech by words or syllables.

ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. "engine" from ingenium, or of artus, joint), a term originally applied to all engines for discharging missiles, and in this sense used in English in the early 17th century. In a more restricted sense, artillery has come to mean all firearms not carried and used by hand, and also the personnel and organization by which the power of such weapons is wielded. It is, however, not usual to class machine guns (q.v.) as artillery. The present article Ideals with the development and contemporary state of the artillery arm in land warfare, in respect of its organization, personnel and special or "formal" employment. For the matériel-the guns, their carriages and their ammunition-see ORDNANCE and AMMUNITION. For ballistics, see that heading, and for the work of artillery in combination with the other arms, see TACTICS.

Artillery, as distinct from ordnance, is usually classified in accordance with the functions it has to perform. The simplest division is that into mobile and immobile artillery, the former being concerned with the handling of all weapons so mounted as to be capable of more or less easy movement from place to place, the latter with that of weapons which are installed in fixed positions. Mobile artillery is subdivided, again chiefly in respect of its employment, into horse and field batteries, heavy field or position artillery, field howitzers, mountain artillery and siege trains, adapted to every kind of terrain in which field troops may be employed, and work they may have to do. Immobile artillery is used in fixed positions of all kinds, and above all in permanent fortifications; it cannot, therefore, be classified as above, inasmuch as the raison d'être, and consequently the armament of one fort or battery may be totally distinct from that of another. "Fortress," "Garrison " and " Foot " artillery are the usual names for this branch. The dividing line, indeed, in the case of the heavier weapons, varies with circumstances; guns of position may remain on their ground while elaborate

2. The Beginnings of Field Artillery.-It is clear, from such evidence as we possess, that the chief and almost the only use of guns at this time was to batter the walls of fortifications, and it is not until later in the 15th century that their employment in the field became general (see also CAVALRY). The introduction of field artillery may be attributed to John Žižka, and it was in his Hussite wars (1419-1424) that the Wagenburg, a term of more general application, but taken here as denoting a cart or vehicle armed with several small guns, came into prominence. This device allowed a relatively high manoeuvring power to be attained, and it is found occasionally in European wars two centuries later, as for instance at Wimpfen in 1622 and Cropredy Bridge in 1644. In an act of attainder passed by the Lancastrian party against the Yorkists (1459), it is stated that the latter were "traiterously ranged in bataill. their cartes with gonnes set before their batailles " (Rot. Parl. 38 Henry VI., v. 348). In the London fighting of 1460, small guns were used to clear the streets, heavy ordnance to batter the walls of the Tower. The battle of Lose Coat Field (1469) was decided almost entirely by Edward IV.'s field guns, while at Blackheath (1497) 'some cornets of horse, and bandes of foot, and good store of artillery wheeling about" were sent to "put themselves beyond" the rebel camp (Bacon, Henry VII.). The greatest example of artillery work in the 15th century was the siege of Constantinople in 1453, at which the Turks used a large force of artillery, and in particular some monster pieces, some of which survived to engage a British squadron in 1807, when a stone shot weighing some 700 lb cut the mainmast of Admiral (Sir) J. T. Duckworth's flagship in two, and another killed and wounded sixty men. For siege purposes the new weapon was indeed highly effective, and the castles of rebellious barons were easily knocked to pieces by the prince who owned, or succeeded in borrowing, a few pieces of ordnance (cf. Carlyle, Frederick the Great, book iii. chap. i.).

3. The 16th Century.—In the Italian wars waged by Charles

VIII., Louis XII. and Francis I. of France, artillery played a most conspicuous part, both in siege and field warfare. Indeed, cannon did excellent service in the field before hand firearms attained any considerable importance. At Ravenna (1512) and Marignan (1515) field artillery did great execution, and at the latter battle" the French artillery played a new and distinguished part, not only by protecting the centre of the army from the charges of the Swiss phalanxes, and causing them excessive loss, but also by rapidly taking up such positions from time to time ... as enabled the guns to play upon the flanks of the attacking columns" (Chesney, Observations on Firearms, 1852). In this connexion it must, however, be observed that, when the arquebus and other small arms became really efficient (about 1525), less is heard of this small and handy field artillery, which had hitherto been the only means of breaking up the heavy masses of the hostile pikemen. We have seen that artillery was not ignored in England; but, in view of the splendid and unique efficiency of the archers, there was no great opportunity of developing the new arm. In the time of Henry VIII., the ordnance in use in the field consisted in the main of heavy culverins and other guns of position, and of lighter field pieces, termed sakers, falcons, &c. It is to be noticed that already the lightest pieces had disappeared, the smallest of the above being a 2-pounder. In the earlier days of field artillery, the artillery train was a miscellaneous congeries of pontoon, supply, baggage. and tool wagons, heavy ordnance and light guns in carts. With the development of infantry fire the use of the lastnamed weapons died out, and it is largely due to this fact that 'artillery" came to imply cumbrous and immobile guns of position. Little is, therefore, heard of smart manœuvring, such as that at Marignan, during the latter part of the 16th century. The guns now usually come into action in advance of the troops, but, from their want of mobility, could neither accompany a farther advance nor protect a retreat, and they were generally captured and recaptured with every changing phase of the fight. Great progress was in the meanwhile made in the adaptation of ordnance to the attack and defence of fortresses and, in particular, vertical fire came into vogue. A great Turkish gun, carrying a 600-lb stone shot, was used in the siege of Constantinople, apparently in this way, since Gibbon records that at the range of a mile the shot buried itself a fathom deep in earth, a fact which implies that a high angle of elevation was given. In the celebrated siege of Malta in 1565 artillery played a conspicuous part.

guns to Wallenstein's twenty-one. His field pieces were not the celebrated "leather" guns (which were indeed a mere makeshift used in Gustavus' Polish wars) but iron 4-pounders. These were distributed amongst the infantry units, and thus began the system of "battalion guns" which survived in the armies of Europe long after the conditions requiring it had vanished. The object of thus dispersing the guns was doubtless to ensure in the first place more certain co-operation between the two arms, and in the second to exercise a military supervision over the lighter and more useful field pieces which it was as yet impossible to exercise over the personnel of the heavy artillery.

5. Personnel and Classification. More than 300 years after the first employment of ordnance, the men working the guns and the transport drivers were still civilians. The actual commander of the artillery was indeed, both in Germany and in England, usually a soldier, and Lennart Torstensson, the commander of Gustavus' artillery, became a brilliant and successful general. But the transport and the drivers were still hired, and even the gunners were chiefly concerned for the safety of their pieces, the latter being often the property, not of the king waging war, but of some "master gunner" whose services he had secured, and the latter's apprentices were usually in entire charge of the material. These civilian “artists," as they were termed, owed no more duty to the prince than any other employés, and even Gustavus, it would appear, made no great improvement in the matter of the reorganization of artillery trains. Soldiers as drivers do not appear until 150 years later, and in the meanwhile companies of "firelocks" and "fusiliers" (q.".) came into existence, as much to prevent the gunners and drivers from running away as to protect them from the enemy. A further cause of difficulties, in England at any rate, was the age of the "gunners." In the reign of Elizabeth, some of the Tower gunners were over ninety years of age. Complaints as to the inefficiency of these men are frequent in the years preceding the English Civil War. Gustavus, however, has the merit of being the first to make the broad classification of artillery, as mobile or non-mobile, which has since been almost universally in force. In his time the 12-pounder was the heaviest gun classed as mobile, and the "feildpcece" par excellence was the 9-pounder or demiculverin. After the death of Gustavus at Lützen (1632), his principles came universally into practice, and amongst them were those of the employment of field artillery.

6. The English Civil War.-Even in the English Civil War (Great Rebellion), in which artillery was hampered by the previous neglect of a century, its field work was not often contemptible, and on occasion the arm did excellent service. But in the cam

was to decide the quarrel swiftly, the marching and manoeuvring were unusually rapid.. The consequence of this was that the guns were sometimes either late in arriving, as at Edgehill, or absent altogether, as at Preston. The rôle of guns was further reduced by the fact that there were few fortresses to be reduced, and country houses, however strong, rarely required to be battered by a siege train. The New Model army usually sent for siege guns only when they were needed for particular service. On such occasions, indeed, the heavy ordnance did its work so quickly and effectually that the assault often took place one or two days after the guns had opened fire. Cromwell in his sieges made great use of shells, 12-inch and even larger mortars being employed. The castle of Devizes, which had successfully resisted the Parliamentary battering guns, succumbed at once to vertical fire. It does not, however, appear certain that there was any separation of field from siege ordnance, although the Swedish system was followed in almost all military matters.

4. The Thirty Years' War.-Such, in its broadest outlines, is the history of artillery work during the first three centuries of its existence. Whilst the material had undergone a very consider-paigns of this war, fought out by men whose most ardent desire able improvement, the organization remained almost unchanged, and the tactical employment of guns had become restricted, owing to their slowness and difficulty of movement on the march and immobility in action. In wars of the type of the War of Dutch Independence and the earlier part of the Thirty Years' War, this heavy artillery naturally remained useful enough, and the Wagenburg had given place to the musketry initiated by the Spaniards at Bicocca and Pavia, which since 1525 had steadily improved and developed. It is not, therefore, until the appearance of a captain whose secret of success was vigour and mobility that the first serious attempt was made to produce field artillery in the proper sense of the word, that is, a gun of good power, and at the same time so mounted as to be capable of rapid movement. The "carte with gonnes" had been, as is the modern machine gun, a mechanical concentration of musketry rather than a piece of artillery. Maurice of Nassau, indeed, helped to develop the field gun, and the French had invented the limber, but Gustavus Adolphus was the first to give artillery its true position on the battlefield. At the first battle of Breitenfeld (1631) Gustavus had twelve heavy and forty-two light guns engaged, as against Tilly's heavy 24-pounders, which were naturally far too cumbrous for field work. At the Lech (1632) Gustavus seems to have obtained a local superiority over his opponent owing to the handiness of his field artillery even more than by its fire-power. At Lützen (1632) he had sixty

7. Artillery Progress, 1660-1740.-Cromwell's practice of relegating heavy guns to the rear, except when a serious siege operation was in view, and in very rapid movements leaving even the field pieces far behind, was followed to some extent in the campaigns of the age of Louis XIV. The number of ammunition wagons, and above all of horses, required for each gun was four or five times as great as that required even for a modern quickfirer. In the days of Turenne heavy guns were much employed,