Page images
PDF
EPUB

his direction the building for the Astor library was erected, and | from its mouth. Pop. (1890) 6184; (1900) 8381, of whom 3779 to the library he gave about $550,000, including a bequest of $200,000. His son, JOHN JACOB ASTOR (1822-1890), was also well known as a capitalist and philanthropist, giving liberally to the Astor library.

The son of the last named, WILLIAM WALDORF ASTOR (1848), served in the New York assembly in 1877, and in the state senate in 1880-81. He was United States minister to Italy from 1882 to 1885. He published two romances, Valentine (1885) and Sforza (1889). His wealth, arising from property in New York, where also he built the New Netherland hotel and the Waldorf hotel, was enormous. In 1890 he removed to England, and in 1899 was naturalized. In 1893 he became proprietor of the Pall Mall Gazette, and afterwards started the Pall Mall Magazine. ASTORGA, EMANUELE D' (1681-1736), Italian musical composer, was born at Naples on the 11th of December 1681. No authentic account of Astorga's life can be successfully constructed from the obscure and confusing evidence that has been until now handed down, although historians have not failed to indulge many pleasant conjectures. According to some of these, his father, a baron of Sicily, took an active part in the attempt to throw off the Spanish yoke, but was betrayed by his own soldiers and publicly executed. His wife and son were compelled to be spectators of his fate; and such was the effect upon them that his mother died on the spot, and Emanuele fell into a state of gloomy despondency, which threatened to deprive him of reason. By the kindness of the princess Ursini, the unfortunate young man was placed in a convent at Astorga, in Leon, where he completed a musical education which is said to have been begun in Palermo under Francesco Scarlatti. Here he recovered his health, and his admirable musical talents were cultivated under the best masters. On the details of this account no reliance can safely be placed, nor is there any certainty that in 1703 he entered the service of the duke of Parma. Equally untrustworthy is the story that the duke, suspecting an attachment between his niece Elizabeth Farnese and Astorga, dismissed the musician. The established facts concerning Astorga are indeed few enough. They are: that the opera Dafne was written and conducted by the composer in Barcelona in 1709; that he visited London, where he wrote his Stabat Mater, possibly for the society of " Antient Musick "; that it was performed in Oxford in 1713; that in 1712 he was in Vienna, and that he retired at an uncertain date to Bohemia, where he died on the 21st of August 1736, in a castle which had been given to him in the domains of Prince Lobkowitz, in Raudnitz. Astorga deserves remembrance for his dignified and pathetic Stabat Mater, and for his numerous chamber-cantatas for one or two voices. He was probably the last composer to carry on the traditions of this form of chamber-music as perfected by Alessandro Scarlatti.

ASTORGA, a city of N.W. Spain, in the province of Leon; situated near the right bank of the river Tuerto, and at the junction of the Salamanca-Corunna and Leon-Astorga railways. Pop. (1900) 5573 Astorga was the Roman Asturica Augusta, a provincial capital, and the meeting-place of four military roads. Though sacked by the Goths in the 5th century, and later by the Moors, it is still surrounded by massive walls of Roman origin. A ruined castle, near the city, recalls its strategic importance in the 8th century, when Asturias, Galicia and Leon were the headquarters of resistance to the Moors. Astorga has been the see of a bishop since the 3rd century, and was formerly known as the City of Priests, from the number of ecclesiastics resident within its walls. Its Gothic cathedral dates from the 15th century. The city confers the title of marquis on the Osorio family, the ruins of whose palace, sacked in 1810 by the French, are still an object of interest.

For the history, especially the ecclesiastical history, of Astorga, see the anonymous Historia de la ciudad de Astorga (Valladolid, 1840); with Fundación de la... iglesia de Astorga, by P. A. Ezpeleta (Madrid, 1634); and Fundación, nombre y armas de Astorga, by P. Junco (Pamplona, 1635).

ASTORIA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Clatsop county, Oregon, U.S.A., on the Columbia river, 8 m.

[ocr errors]

were foreign-born (many being Finns,-a Finnish weekly was established here in 1905), and 601 were Chinese; (1910, census) 9599. It is served by the Astoria & Columbia River railroad (Northern Pacific System), and by several coastwise and foreign steamship lines (including that of the Oregon Railway & Navigation Co.). The river here is about 6 m. wide, and the city has a water-front of about 5 m. and a deep, spacious and placid harbour. By dredging and the construction of jetties the Federal government has since 1885 greatly improved the channel at the mouth of the river. The business portion of the city occupies the low ground of the river bottom; the residence portion is on the hillsides overlooking the harbour. Astoria is the port of entry for the Oregon Customs District, Oregon; in 1907 its imports were valued at $21,262, and its exports at $329,103. The city is especially important as a salmon fishing and packing centre (cod, halibut and smaller fish also being abundant); it has also an extensive lumber trade, important lumber manufactories, pressed brick and terra-cotta factories, and dairy interests. In 1905 the value of the factory product was $3,092,628 (of which $1,759,871 was the value of preserved and canned fish), being an increase of 41.8% in five years. Astoria is the oldest American settlement in the Columbia Valley. It was founded in 1811, as a depot for the fur trade, by John Jacob Astor, in whose honour it was named. It was seized by the British in 1813, but was restored in 1818. In 1821, while occupied by the North-West Fur Company, it was burned and practically abandoned, only a few settlers remaining. It was chartered as a city in 1876. See Washington Irving's Astoria; or Anecdotes of an Enterprise beyond the Rocky Mountains (Philadelphia, 1836).

[ocr errors]

ASTRAEA, in Greek legend, the star maiden," daughter of Zeus and Themis, or of Astraeus the Titan and Eos, in which case she is identified with Dike. During the golden age she remained among men distributing blessings, but when the iron (or bronze) age came on, she was forced to withdraw, being the last of the goddesses to quit the earth. In the heavens she is amongst the signs of the zodiac as the constellation Virgo. She is usually represented with a pair of scales and a crown of stars. Ov. Met. i. 150; Juv. vi. 19; Aratus, Phaenomena, 96. ASTRAGAL (from the Gr. ȧorpayaλos, the ankle-joint), an architectural term for a convex moulding. This term is generally applied to small mouldings, torus (q.v.) to large ones of the same form. The Lesbian astragal referred to by Vitruvius, bk. iv. ch. vi., was in all probability an astragal carved with a bead and reel enrichment.

[ocr errors]
[ocr errors]

ASTRAKHAN, a government of S.E. Russia, on the lower Volga, bounded N. by the governments of Samara and Saratov, W. by Saratov and the government of the Don Cossacks, S. by Stavropol and Terek, and E. by the Caspian Sea and the governIment of the Urals. Area, 91,327 sq. m., of which 6730 sq. m. belong to the delta of the Volga and its brackish lagoons, and 62,290 sq. m. are covered by the Kalmuck and Kirghiz Steppes. The surface is a low-lying plain, except that in the west the Ergeni Hills (500-575 ft.) form the water-parting between the Volga basin and that of the Don. The climate is very hot and dry, the average temperature for the year being 50° Fahr., for January 21°, and for July.78°, rainfall 7.3 in., but often there is no rain at all in the summer. Pop. (1897) 1,005,460, of whom 132,383 were urban. The Kalmucks (138,580 in 1897) and Kirghiz (260,000) are semi-nomads. In addition to them the population includes nearly 44,000 Tatars, 4270 Armenians, with Poles and Jews. Fishing off the mouth of the Volga gives occupation to 50,000 persons; the fish, chiefly herrings and sturgeon, together with the caviare prepared from the latter, are sold for the most part at Nizhniy-Novgorod. Over 300,000 tons of salt are extracted annually from the lakes, principally those of Baskunchak and Elton. Cattle-breeding is an important industry. Market-gardening (mustard, water-melons, fruit) is on the increase; but pure agriculture is relatively not much developed. The government is divided into five districts, the chief towns of which are Astrakhan, Enotayevsk (pop. 2810 in 1897), Krasnyi-yar (4680), Chernyi-yar (5140), and Tsarev

(8900). The Kalmucks and Kirghiz have their own local | tory instruments of the 15th, 16th and even 17th centuries; administrations, and so have the Astrakhan Cossacks (25,600).

while small ones were in use among travellers and learned men,
not only for astronomical, but for astrological and topographical
purposes. Nearly every one of the modern instruments used for
the observations of physical astronomy is a part of the perfected
astrolabe. A collection of circles such as is the armillary sphere,
if each circle were fitted with a view-tube, might be considered
a complete astrolabe. Tycho's armillae were astrolabes. In
fact the modern equatorial, and the altitude and azimuth circle
are astrolabes in the strictest and oldest meaning of the term;
and Tycho in one of his astrolabes came so near the modern
equatorial that it may be taken as the first of the kind.
The two forms of the planispheric astrolabe most widely

THE HORIZON

LINE

FIDUCIAL

(1) the portable astrolabe shown in
fig. 1 (Plate). This originated in
the East, and was in early use
in India, Persia and Arabia, and
was introduced into Europe by
the Arabs, who had perfected it
perhaps as early as A.D. 700.
It combines the planisphere and
armillae of Hipparchus and
others, and the theodolite of
Theon, and was usually of brass,
varying in diameter from a
couple of inches to a foot or
more. It was used for taking the
altitudes of sun, moon and From Exercises, by T. Blundeville,
stars; for calculating latitude; FIG. 3.-Mariner's Astrolabe,
for determining the points of the A.D. 1594. Made of brass, or of
compass, and time; for ascertain- heavy wood: it varied in size
from a few inches to 1 ft. in
ing heights of mountains, &c.; diameter.
and for construction of horo-
scopes. The instrument was a marvel of convenience and
ingenuity, and was called "the mathematical jewel." Never-
theless it passed out of use, because incapable of any great
precision.

ASTRAKHAN, a town of E. Russia, capital of the government of Astrakhan, on the left bank of the main channel of the Volga, 50 m. from the Caspian Sea, in 46° 21′ N. lat. and 48° 5' E. long. Since the growth of the petroleum industry of Baku and the construction of the Transcaspian railway, Astrakhan has become an important commercial centre, exporting fish, caviare, sugar, metals, naphtha, cottons and woollens, and importing grain, cotton, fruit and timber, to the aggregate value of £8,250,000 with foreign countries and of £14,500,000 with the interior of Russia. The town gives its name to the "fur " called astrakhan," the skin of the new-born Persian lamb, and so to an imitation in rough woollen cloth. There is some tanning, ship-known and used in the 15th, 16th and even 17th centuries were: building and brewing, and making of soap, tar and machinery. Astrakhan is the chief port on the Caspian Sea and the headquarters of the Russian Caspian fleet. The city consists of (1) the kreml or citadel (1550), crowning a hill, on which stand also the spacious brick cathedral containing the tombs of two Georgian princes, the archbishop's palace and the monastery of the Trinity; (2) the Byelogorod or White Town, containing the administrative offices and the bazaars; and (3) the suburbs, where most of the population resides. The buildings in the first two quarters are of stone, in the third of wood, irregularly arranged along unpaved, dirty streets. The city is the see of a Greek Catholic archbishop and of an Armenian archbishop, and contains a Lamaist monastery, as well as technical schools, an ichthyological museum, the Peter museum, with ethnographical, archaeological and natural history collections, a botanical garden, an ecclesiastical seminary, and good squares and public gardens, one of which is adorned with a statue (1884) of Alexander II. Vineyards surround the city. Astrakhan was anciently the capital of a Tatar state, and stood some 7 m. farther north. After this was destroyed by the Mongol prince Timur the Great in 1395, the existing city was built. The Tatars were expelled about 1554 by Ivan IV. of Russia. In 1569 the city was besieged by the Turks, but they were defeated with great slaughter by the Russians. In 1670 it was seized by the rebel Stenka Razin; early in the following century Peter the Great constructed here a shipbuilding yard and made Astrakhan the base for his hostilities against Persia, and later in the same century Catherine II. accorded the city important industrial privileges. In 1702, 1718 and 1767, it suffered severely from fires; in 1719 was plundered by the Persians; and in 1830 the cholera swept away a large number of its people. In the middle ages the city was known also as Jitarkhan and Ginterkhan. Pop. (1867) 47,839; (1900) 121,580. Eight miles above Astrakhan, on the right bank of the Volga, are the ruins of two ancient cities superimposed one upon the other. In the upper, which may represent the city of Balanjar (Balansar, Belenjer), have been found gold and silver coins struck by Mongol rulers, as well as ornaments in the same metals. The older and scantier underlying ruins are supposed to be those of the once large and prosperous city of Itil or Atel (Etel, Idl) of the Arab geographers, a residence of the khan of the Khazars, destroyed by the Russians in 969. (P. A. K.)

(2) The mariner's astrolabe, fig. 3, was adapted from that of astronomers by Martin Behaim, c. 1480. This was the instrument used by Columbus. With the tables of the sun's declination then available, he could calculate his latitude by meridian altitudes of the sun taken with his astrolabe. The mariner's astrolabe was superseded by John Hadley's quadrant of 1731.

AUTHORITIES.-Chaucer, Treatise on the Astrolabe (Skeat's edition of Chaucer); J. J. Stöffler, Elucidatio Fabrice ususque Astrolabii, Astrolabium; W. H. Morley, Description of Astrolabe of Shah &c.; Thomas Blundeville, His Exercises (1594); F. Ritter, Husain; M. L. Huggins, "The Astrolabe" (Astrophysical Journal, 1894); Penny Cyclopaedia, article "Astrolabe;" R. Grant, History of Physical Astronomy. (M. L. H.)

ASTROLABE (from Gr. ǎarpov, star, and λaßeîv, to take), an instrument used not only for stellar, but for solar and lunar altitude-taking. The principle of the astrolabe is explained in fig. 2. There were two kinds,-spherical and planispheric. FIG. 2.-Principle of the Astrolabe. If a ..P solid circle be fixed in any one position and a tube be pivoted on its centre so as to move; and if the line CD be drawn upon the circle pointing towards any object Q in the heavens which lies in the plane of the circle, by turning the tube A B towards any other object P in the plane of the circle, the angle BOD will be the angle subtended by the two objects P and Q at the eye. The earliest forms were "armillae " and spherical. Gradually, from Eratosthenes to Tycho, Hipparchus playing the most important part among ancient astronomers, the complex astrolabe was evolved, large specimens being among the chief observa

ASTROLOGY, the ancient art or science of divining the fate and future of human beings from indications given by the positions of the stars (sun, moon and planets). The belief in a connexion between the heavenly bodies and the life of man has played an important part in human history. For long ages astronomy and astrology (which might be called astromancy, on the same principle as "chiromancy") were identified; and a distinction is made between "natural astrology," which predicts the motions of the heavenly bodies, eclipses, &c., and “judicial astrology," which studies the influence of the stars on human destiny. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) is one of the first to distinguish between astronomy and astrology; nor did astronomy begin to rid itself of astrology till the 16th century, when, with the system of Copernicus, the conviction that the earth itself is one of the heavenly bodies was finally established. The study of astromancy and the belief in it, as part of astronomy, is found in a developed form among the ancient Babylonians, and directly or indirectly through the Babylonians spread to other, nations. It came to Greece about the middle of the 4th century B.C., and reached Rome before the opening of the Christian era. In India and China astronomy and astrology are largely reflections of Greek theories and speculations; and similarly with

[ocr errors]

ASTROLOGY

the introduction of Greek culture into Egypt, both astronomy | pendent upon the sun shining in the heavens as well as upon the
and astrology were actively cultivated in the region of the Nile
during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Astrology was
further developed by the Arabs from the 7th to the 13th century,
and in the Europe of the 14th and 15th centuries astrologers
were dominating influences at court.

rains that come from heaven, that on the other hand the mischief the Euphratean Valley was almost regularly subject, were to be traced likewise to the heavens, the conclusion was drawn that and damage done by storms and inundations, to both of which age of culture known as the "nomadic "stage, which under normal conditions precedes the "agricultural" stage, the moon all the great gods had their seats in the heavens. In that early cult is even more prominent than sun worship, and with the moon and sun cults thus furnished by the was a natural step for the priests, who correspond to the "scienearth. tists" of a later day, to perfect a theory of a complete accord popular" faith it between phenomena observed in the heavens and occurrences on

Even up to the present day men of intellectual eminence like Dr Richard Garnett have convinced themselves that astromancy has a foundation of truth, just as there are still believers in chiromancy or other forms of divination. Dr Garnett (" A. G. Trent") insisted indeed that it was a mistake to confuse astrology with fortune-telling, and maintained that it was a science just as much as geology," depending like them on ascertained facts, and grossly misrepresented by being connected "physical with magic. Dr Garnett himself looked upon the study of biography in relation to the casting of horoscopes as an empirical more intelligent minds the conception of the reign of law and investigation, but it is difficult in practice to keep the distinction order in the universe as against the more popular notion of If moon and sun, whose regular movements conveyed to the clear, to judge by present-day text-books such as those of Dr chance and caprice, were divine powers, the same held good Wilde (Primer of Astrology, &c.). Dr Wilde insists on there being of the planets, whose movements, though more difficult to nothing incongruous with the laws of nature in the theory follow, yet in the course of time came to be at least partially that the sun, moon and stars influence men's physical bodies understood. Of the planets five were recognized-Jupiter, and conditions, seeing that man is made up of a physical part Venus, Saturn, Mercury and Mars-to name them in the order of the earth." astromancy to be employed, like palmistry, as a means of texts Mercury and Saturn change places. These five planets There is an obvious tendency, however, for in which they appear in the older cuneiform literature; in later imposing on the ignorant and credulous. How far the more serious claim is likely to be revived in connexion with the Jupiter with Marduk (q.v.), Venus with the goddess Ishtar (q.v.), renewal of research into the were identified with the great gods of the pantheon as follows:still too early to speculate; and it has to be recognized that with Nergal (q.v.). The movements of the sun, moon and five occult" sciences generally, it is Saturn with Ninib (q.v.), Mercury with Nebo (q.v.), and Mars such a point of view is opposed to the generally established planets were regarded as representing the activity of the five belief that astrology is either mere superstition or absolute gods in question, together with the moon-god Sin (q.v.) and the imposture, and that its former vogue was due either to deception sun-god Shamash (q.v.), in preparing the occurrences on earth. or to the tyranny of an unscientific environment. But if the If, therefore, one could correctly read and interpret the activity progress of physical science has not prevented the rehabilitation of these powers, one knew what the gods were aiming to bring of much of ancient alchemy by the later researches into chemical about. The Babylonian priests accordingly applied themselves change, and if psychology now finds a place for explanations of to the task of perfecting a system of interpretation of the phenospiritualism and witchcraft which involve the admission of the empirical facts under a new theory (as in the case of the divining- system was extended from the moon, sun and five planets to the rod, &c.), it is at least conceivable that some new synthesis more prominent and recognizable fixed stars. That system inmena to be observed in the heavens, and it was natural that the might once more justify part at all events of ancient and medieval volved not merely the movements of the moon, sun and planets, astromancy, to the extent of admitting the empirical facts where but the observation of their relative position to one another and provable, and substituting for the supposed influence of the stars as such, some deeper theory which would be consistent with an application to other forms of prophecy, and thus might reconto all kinds of peculiarities noted at any point in the course of cile the possibility of dipping into futurity with certain inter- the conditions at conjunction and opposition, the appearance their movements: in the case of the moon, for instance, the relations of the universe, different indeed from those assumed of the horns, the halo frequently seen with the new moon, exact appearance of the new crescent, its position in the heavens, by astrological theory, but underlying and explaining it. If which was compared to a "cap," the ring round the full moon, this is ever accomplished it will need the patient investigation which was called a of a number of empirical observations by competent students like. To all these phenomena some significance was attached, unbiassed by any parti pris-a difficult set of conditions to obtain; and even then no definite results may be achieved. such a striking phenomenon as an eclipse of the moon. stall" (i.c." enclosure "), and more of the The history of astrology can now be traced back to ancient and this significance was naturally intensified in the case of Babylonia, and indeed to the earliest phases of Babylonian and later to some of the constellations and to many of the fixed history, i.c. to about 3000 B.C. In Babylonia as well as in Assyria stars, it will be apparent that the body of observations noted the same method of careful observation to the sun and planets, as a direct offshoot of Babylonian culture (or as we might also Applying term it "Euphratean official cult as one of the two chief means at the disposal of the assigned to the nearly endless variations in the phenomena thus culture), astrology takes its place in the must have grown in the course of time to large and indeed to priests (who were called bārē or "inspectors ") for ascertaining observed. The interpretations themselves were based (as in the enormous proportions, and correspondingly the interpretations the will and intention of the gods, the other being through the inspection of the liver of the sacrificial animal (see OMEN). Just (1) on the recollection or on written records of what in the past as this latter method of divination rested on a well-defined theory, had taken place when the phenomenon or phenomena in quescase of divination through the liver) chiefly on two factors:to wit, that the liver was the seat of the soul of the animal and tion had been observed, and (2) association of ideas-involving that the deity in accepting the sacrifice identified himself with sometimes merely a play upon words-in connexion with the the animal, whose with that of the god and therefore reflected the mind and will occasion the rise of the new moon in a cloudy sky was followed soul was thus placed in complete accord phenomenon or phenomena observed. Thus if on a certain of the god, so astrology is based on a theory of divine government by victory over an enemy or by abundant rain, the sign in of the world, which in contrast to "liver" divination assumes question was thus proved to be a favourable one and its recurat the start a more scientific or pseudo-scientific aspect. This theory must be taken into consideration, as a factor in accounting tion would not necessarily be limited to the one or the other of for the persistent hold which even at the present day astrology those occurrences, but might be extended to apply to other rence would be regarded as a good omen, though the prognosticastill maintains on many minds. Starting with the indisputable circumstances. On the other hand, the appearance of the new fact that man's life and happiness are largely dependent upon phenomena in the heavens, that the fertility of the soil is de-able omen--prognosticating in one case defeat, in another death moon earlier than was expected was regarded as an unfavour

"

among cattle, in a third bad crops-not necessarily because | these events actually took place after such a phenomenon, but by an application of the general principle resting upon association of ideas whereby anything premature would suggest an unfavourable occurrence. A thin halo seen above the new moon was pictured as a cap, and the association between this and the symbol of royalty, which was a conical-shaped cap, led to interpreting the phenomenon as an indication that the ruler would have a successful reign. In this way a mass of traditional interpretation of all kinds of observed phenomena was gathered, and once gathered became a guide to the priests for all times. Astrology in this its earliest stage is, however, marked by two characteristic limitations. In the first place, the movements and position of the heavenly bodies point to such occurrences as are of public import and affect the general welfare. The individual's interests are not in any way involved, and we must descend many centuries and pass beyond the confines of Babylonia and Assyria before we reach that phase which in medieval and modern astrology is almost exclusively dwelt upongenethliology or the individual horoscope. In Babylonia and Assyria the cult centred largely and indeed almost exclusively in the public welfare and the person of the king, because upon his well-being and favour with the gods the fortunes of the country were dependent in accordance with the ancient conception of kingship (see J. G. Frazer, The Early History of Kingship). To some extent, the individual came in for his share in the incantations and in the purification ritual through which one might hope to rid oneself of the power of the demons and of other evil spirits, but outside of this the important aim of the priests was to secure for the general benefit the favour of the gods, or, as a means of preparing oneself for what the future had in store, to ascertain in time whether that favour would be granted in any particular instance or would be continued in the future. Hence in "liver" divination, as in astrology, the interpretations of the signs noted all have reference to public affairs and events and not to the individual's needs or desires. In the second place, the astronomical knowledge presupposed and accompanying early Babylonian astrology is essentially of an empirical character. While in a general way the reign of law and order in the movements of the heavenly bodies was recognized, and indeed must have exercised an influence at an early period in leading to the rise of a methodical divination that was certainly of a much higher order than the examination of an animal's liver, yet the importance that was laid upon the endless variations in the form of the phenomena and the equally numerous apparent deviations from what were regarded as normal conditions, prevented for a long time the rise of any serious study of astronomy beyond what was needed for the purely practical purposes that the priests as "inspectors" of the heavens (as they were also the "inspectors" of the sacrificial livers) had in mind. True, we have, probably as early as the days of Khammurabi, i.e. c. 2000 B.C., the combinations of prominent groups of stars with outlines of pictures fantastically put together, but there is no evidence that prior to 700 B.C. more than a number of the constellations of our zodiac had become part of the current astronomy. The theory of the ecliptic as representing the course of the sun through the year, divided among twelve constellations with a measurement of 30° to each division, is also of Babylonian origin, as has now been definitely proved; but it does not appear to have been perfected until after the fall of the Babylonian empire in 539 B.C. Similarly, the other accomplishments of Babylonian astronomers, such as their system or rather systems of moon calculations and the drawing up of planetary tablets, belong to this late period, so that the golden age of Babylonian astronomy belongs not to the remote past, as was until recently supposed, but to the Seleucid period, i.e. after the advent of the Greeks in the Euphrates Valley. From certain expressions used in astrological texts that are earlier than the 7th century B.C. it would appear, indeed; that the beginnings at least of the calculation of sun and moon eclipses belong to the earlier period, but here, too, the chief work accomplished was after 400 B.C., and the defectiveness of

early Babylonian astronomy may be gathered from the fact that as late as the 6th century B.C. an error of almost an entire month was made by the Babylonian astronomers in the attempt to determine through calculation the beginning of a certain year.

The researches of Bouché-Leclercq, Cumont and Boll have enabled us to fix with a considerable degree of definiteness the middle of the 4th century B.C. as the period when Babylonian astrology began its triumphal march to the west, invading the domain of Greek and Roman culture and destined to exercise a strong hold on all nations and groups-more particularly in Egypt that came within the sphere of Greek and Roman influence. It is rather significant that this spread of astrology should have been concomitant with the intellectual impulse that led to the rise of a genuine scientific phase of astronomy in Babylonia itself, which must have weakened to some extent the hold that astrology had on the priests and the people. The advent of the Persians, bringing with them a conception of religion of a far higher order than Babylonian-Assyrian polytheism (see ZOROASTER), must also have acted as a disintegrating factor in leading to the decline of the old faith in the Euphrates Valley, and we thus have the interesting though not entirely exceptional phenomenon of a great civilization bequeathing as a legacy to posterity a superstition instead of a real achievement. "Chaldaean wisdom" became among Greeks and Romans the synonym of divination through the planets and stars, and it is not surprising that in the course of time to be known as a "Chaldaean carried with it frequently the suspicion of charlatanry and of more or less wilful deception. The spread of astrology beyond Babylonia is thus concomitant with the rise of a truly scientific astronomy in Babylonia itself, which in turn is due to the intellectual impulse afforded by the contact with new forms of culture from both the East and the West.

In the hands of the Greeks and of the later Egyptians both astrology and astronomy were carried far beyond the limits attained by the Babylonians, and it is indeed a matter of surprise to observe the harmonious combination of the two fields-a harmony that seems to grow more complete with each age, and that is not broken until we reach the threshold of modern science in the 16th century. To the Greek astronomer Hipparchus belongs the credit of the discovery (c. 130 B.C.) of the theory of the precession of the equinoxes, for a knowledge of which among the Babylonians we find no definite proof; but such a signal advance in pure science did not prevent the Greeks from developing in a most elaborate manner the theory of the influence of the planets upon the fate of the individual. The endeavour to trace the horoscope of the individual from the position of the planets and stars at the time of birth (or, as was attempted by other astrologers, at the time of conception) represents the most significant contribution of the Greeks to astrology. The system was carried to such a degree of perfection that later ages made but few additions of an essential character to the genethliology or drawing up of the individual horoscope by the Greek astrologers. The system was taken up almost bodily by the Arab astronomers, it was embodied in the Kabbalistic lore of Jews and Christians, and through these and other channels came to be the substance of the astrology of the middle ages, forming, as already pointed out, under the designation of "judicial astrology," a pseudo-science which was placed on a perfect footing of equality with "natural astrology" or the more genuine science of the study of the motions and phenomena of the heavenly bodies.

Partly in further development of views unfolded in Babylonia, but chiefly under Greek influences, the scope of astrology was enlarged until it was brought into connexion with practically all of the known sciences, botany, chemistry, zoology, mineralogy, anatomy and medicine. Colours, metals, stones, plants, drugs and animal life of all kinds were associated with the planets and placed under their tutelage. In the system that passes under the, name of Ptolemy, Saturn is associated with grey, Jupiter with white, Mars with red, Venus with yellow, while Mercury, occupying a peculiar place in Greek as it did in Babylonian astrology (where it was at one time designated as the planet par excellence), was supposed to vary its colour according to changing

circumstances. The sun was associated with gold, the moon with | silver, Jupiter with electrum, Saturn with lead, Venus with copper, and so on, while the continued influence of astrological motives is to be seen in the association of quicksilver, upon its discovery at a comparatively late period, with Mercury, because of its changeable character as a solid and a liquid. In the same way stones were connected with both the planets and the months; plants, by diverse association of ideas, were connected with the planets, and animals likewise were placed under the guidance and protection of one or other of the heavenly bodies. By this curious process of combination the entire realm of the natural sciences was translated into the language of astrology with the single avowed purpose of seeing in all phenomena signs indicative of what the future had in store. The fate of the individual, as that feature of the future which had a supreme interest, led to the association of the planets with parts of the body. Here, too, we find various systems devised, in part representing the views of different schools, in part reflecting advancing conceptions regarding the functions of the organs in man and animals. In one system the seat of Mercury, representing divine intelligence as the source of all knowledge-a view that reverts to Babylonia where Nebo (corresponding to Mercury) was regarded as the divine power to whom all wisdom is due-was placed in the liver as the primeval seat of the soul (see OMEN), whereas in other systems this distinction was assigned to Jupiter or to Venus. Saturn, taking in Greek astrology the place at the head of the planets which among the Babylonians was accorded to JupiterMarduk, was given a place in the brain, which in later times was looked upon as the centre of soul-life; Venus, as the planet of the passion of love, was supposed to reign supreme over the genital organs, the belly and the lower limbs; Mars, as the violent planet, is associated with the bile, as well as with the blood and kidneys. Again, the right ear is associated with Saturn, the left ear with Mars, the right eye in the case of the male with the sun and the left eye with the moon, while in the case of the female it was just the reverse. From the planets the same association of ideas was applied to the constellations of the zodiac, which in later phases of astrology are placed on a par with the planets themselves, so far as their importance for the individual horoscope is concerned. The fate of the individual in this combination of planets with the zodiac was made dependent not merely upon the planet which happened to be rising at the time of birth or of conception, but also upon its local relationship to a special sign or to certain signs of the zodiac. The zodiac was regarded as the prototype of the human body, the different parts of which all had their corresponding section in the zodiac itself. The head was placed in the first sign of the zodiac-the Ram; and the feet in the last sign-the Fishes. Between these two extremes the other parts and organs of the body were distributed among the remaining signs of the zodiac, the neck being assigned to the Bull, the shoulders and arms to the Gemini (or twins), the breast to Cancer, the flanks to Leo, the bladder to Virgo, the buttocks to the Balance, the pubis to the Scorpion, the thighs to Sagittarius, the knees to Capricorn, and the limbs to Aquarius. Not content with this, we find the late Egyptian astrologers setting up a correspondence between the thirty-six decani recognized by them and the human body, which is thus divided into thirty-six parts; to each part a god was assigned as a controlling force. With human anatomy thus connected with the planets, with constellations, and with single stars, medicine became an integral part of astrology, or, as we might also put it, astrology became the handmaid of medicine. Diseases and distrubances of the ordinary functions of the organs were attributed to the influence of planets or explained as due to conditions observed in a constellation or in the position of a star; and an interesting survival of this bond between astrology and medicine is to be seen in the use up to the present time of the sign of Jupiter 2, which still heads medicinal prescriptions, while, on the other hand, the influence of planetary lore appears in the assignment of the days of the week to the planets, beginning with Sunday, assigned to the sun, and ending with Saturday, the day of Saturn. Passing on into

still later periods, Saturn's day was associated with the Jewish sabbath, Sunday with the Lord's Day, Tuesday with Tiw, the god of war, corresponding to Mars of the Romans and to the Nergal of the Babylonians. Wednesday was assigned to the planet Mercury, the equivalent of the Germanic god Woden; Thursday to Jupiter, the equivalent of Thor; and Friday to Friga, the goddess of love, who is represented by Venus among the Romans and among the Babylonians by Ishtar. Astrological considerations likewise already regulated in ancient Babylonia the distinction of lucky and unlucky days, which passing down to the Greeks and Romans (dies fasti and nefasti) found a striking expression in Hesiod's Works and Days. Among the Arabs similar associations of lucky and unlucky days directly connected with the influence of the planets prevailed through all times, Tuesday and Wednesday, for instance, being regarded as the days for blood-letting, because Tuesday was connected with Mars, the lord of war and blood, and Wednesday with Mercury, the planet of humours. Even in modern times travellers relate how, when an auspicious day has been proclaimed by the astrologers; the streets of Bagdad may be seen running with blood from the barbers' shops.

It is unnecessary here to give a detailed analysis of the methods of judicial astrology as an art, or directions for the casting of a horoscope, or "nativity," i.e. a map of the heavens at the hour of birth, showing, according to the Ephemeris, the position of the heavenly bodies, from which their influence may be deduced. Each of the twelve signs of the zodiac (q.v.) is credited with its own characteristics and influence, and is the controlling sign of its "house of life." The sign exactly rising at the moment of birth is called the ascendant. The benevolent or malignant influence of each planet, together with the sun and moon, is modified by the sign it inhabits at the nativity; thus Jupiter in one house may indicate riches, fame in another, beauty in another, and Saturn similarly poverty, obscurity or deformity. The calculation is affected by the " aspects," i.e. according as the planets are near or far as regards one another (in conjunction, in semi-sextile, semi-square, sextile, quintile, square, trine, sesqui-quadrate, bi-quintile, opposition or parallel acclination). Disastrous signs predominate over auspicious, and the various effects are combined in a very elaborate and complicated manner.

Judicial astrology, as a form of divination, is a concomitant of natural astrology, in its purer astronomical aspect, but mingled with what is now considered an unscientific and superstitious view of world-forces. In the Janua aurea reserata quatuor linguarum (1643) of J. A. Comenius we find the following definition:-" Astronomus siderum mcalus seu motus considerat: Astrologus eorundem efficaciam, influxum, et effectum." Kepler was more cautious in his opinion; he spoke of astronomy as the wise mother, and astrology as the foolish daughter, but he added that the existence of the daughter was necessary to the life of the mother. Tycho Brahe and Gassendi both began with astrology, and it was only after pursuing the false science, and finding it wanting, that Gassendi devoted himself to astronomy. In their numerous allusions to the subtle mercury, which the one makes when treating of a means of measuring time by the efflux of the metal, and the other in a treatise on the transit of the planet, we see traces of the school in which they served their first apprenticeship. Huygens, moreover, in his great posthumous work, Cosmotheoros, seu de terris coclestibus, shows himself a more exact observer of astrological symbols than Kircher himself in his Iter exstaticum. Huygens contends that between the inhabitants of different planets there need not be any greater difference than exists between men of different types on the earth. "There are on the earth," continues this rational interpreter of the astrologers and chiromancers, men of cold temperament who would thrive in Saturn, which is the farthest planet from the sun, and there are other spirits warm and ardent enough to live in Venus."

[ocr errors]

Those were indeed strange times, according to modern ideas, when astrologers were dominant by the terror they inspired, and sometimes by the martydom they endured when their predictions were either too true or too false. Faith, to borrow their

« ՆախորդըՇարունակել »