babylonische Mondrechnung (1900); J. Epping and J. N. Strassmeier, Astronomisches aus Babylon (1889); F. K. Ginzel, Die astronomischen Kenntnisse der Babylonier (1901); C. L. Ideler, Historische Untersuchungen über die astronomischen Beobachtungen der Alten (1806); Handbuch der math. Chronologie (2 vols., 1825-1826); Untersuchungen über den Ursprung der Sternnamen (1809); G. Costard, History of Astronomy (1767); J. Narrien, An Historical Account of the Origin and Progress of Astronomy (1833); J. L. E. Dreyer, Hist. of the Planetary Systems (1906); G. W. Hill," Progress of Celestial Mechanics," The Observatory, vol. xix. (1896). (A.M.Č.) ASTROPALIA (classical Astypalaea), an island, with good harbours, in the south part of the Aegean, situated in 36.5° N. and immediately west of 26-5° E. It was colonized by Megara, and its constitution and buildings are known from numerous inscriptions. The Roman emperors recognized it as a free state, and in the middle ages it was called Stampalia, and belonged to the noble Venetian family of Quirini. It was taken by the Turks in the 16th century, and is now noted for its sponges. The customs and dress of the people, who speak a patois of romaic origin, are interesting. ASTROPHYSICS, the branch of astronomical science which treats of the physical constitution of the heavenly bodies. So long as these bodies could be known to men only as points or disks of light in the sky, no such science was possible. Even later, when the telescope was the only instrument of research, knowledge on this subject was confined to the appearances presented by the planets, supplemented by more or less probable inferences as to the nature of their surfaces. When, in the third quarter of the 19th century, spectrum analysis was applied to the light coming to us from the heavenly bodies, a new era in astronomical science was opened up of such importance that the body of knowledge revealed by this method has sometimes been termed the "new astronomy." The development of the method has been greatly assisted by photography, while the application of photometric measurements has been a powerful auxiliary in the work. It has thus come about that astrophysics owes its recent development, and its recognition as a distinct branch of astronomical science, to the combination of the processes involved in the three arts of spectroscopy, photography and photometry. The most general conclusions reached by this combination may be summed up as follows: 1. The heavenly bodies are composed of like matter with that which we find to make up our globe. The sun and stars are found to contain the more important elements with which chemistry has made us acquainted. Iron, calcium and hydrogen may be especially mentioned as three familiar chemical elements which enter largely into the constitution of all the matter of the heavens. It would be going too far to say that all the elements known to us exist in the sun or the stars; nor is the question whether the rarer ones can or cannot be found there of prime importance. The general fact of identity in the main constituents is the one of most fundamental importance. It would be going too far in the other direction to claim that all the elements which compose the heavenly bodies are found on the earth. There are many lines in the spectra of the stars, as well as of the nebulae, which are not certainly identified with those belonging to any elements known to our chemistry. The recent discoveries growing out of the investigation of newly discovered forms of radiation lead to the conclusion that the question of the forms of matter in the stars has far wider range than the simple question whether any given element is or is not found outside our earth. The question is rather that of the infinity of forms that matter may assume, including that most attenuated form found in the nebulae, which seem to be composed of matter more refined than even the atoms supposed to make up the matter around us. 2. The second conclusion is that, as a general rule, the incandescent heavenly bodies are not masses of solid or liquid matter as formerly assumed, but mainly masses either of gas, or of substances gaseous in their nature, so compressed by the gravitation of their superincumbent parts toward a common centre that their properties combine those of the three forms of matter known to us. We have strong reason to believe that even the sun, though much denser than the general average of the stars, may possibly be characterized as gaseous rather than solid. Probabilities also seem to favour the view that this may, to a certain extent, be true of the four great planets of our system. The case of bodies like our earth and Mars, which are solid either superficially or throughout, is probably confined to the smaller bodies of the universe. 3. A third characteristic which seems to belong to the great bodies of the universe is the very high temperature of their interior. With a modification to be mentioned presently, we may regard them as intensely hot bodies, probably at a temperature higher than any we can produce by artificial means, of which the superficial portions have cooled off by radiation into space. A modification in this proposition which may hereafter be accepted involves an extension of our ideas of temperature, and leads us to regard the interior heat of the heavenly bodies as due to a form of molecular activity similar to that of which radium affords so remarkable an instance. This modification certainly avoids many difficulties connected with the question of the interior heat of the earth, sun, Jupiter and probably all the larger heavenly bodies. A limit is placed on our knowledge of astrophysics which, up to the present time, we have found no means of overstepping. This is imposed upon us by the fact that it is only when matter is in a gaseous form that the spectroscope can give us certain knowledge as to its physical condition. So long as bodies are in the solid state the light which they emit, though different in different substances, has no characteristic so precisely marked that detailed conclusions can be drawn as to the nature of the substance emitting it. Even in a liquid form, the spectrum of any kind of matter is less characteristic than that of gas. Moreover, a gaseous body of uniform temperature, and so dense as to be non-transparent, does not radiate the characteristic spectrum of the gas of which it is composed. Precise conclusions are possible only when a gaseous body is transparent through and through, so that the gas emits its characteristic rays-or when the rays from an incandescent body of any kind pass through a gaseous envelope at a temperature lower than that of the body itself. In this case the revelations of the spectroscope relate only to the constitution of the gaseous envelope, and not to the body below the envelope, from which the light emanates The outcome of this drawback is that our knowledge of the chemical constitution of the stars and planets is still confined to their atmospheres, and that conclusions as to the constitution of the interior masses which form them must be drawn by other methods than the spectroscopic one. When the spectroscope was first applied in astronomy, it was hoped that the light reflected from living matter might be found to possess some property different from that found in light reflected from non-living matter, and that we might thus detect the presence of life on the surface of a planet by a study of its spectrum; but no hope of this kind has so far been realized. We have, in this brief view of the subject, referred mainly to the results of spectrum analysis. Growing out of, but beyond this method is the beginning of a great branch of research which may ultimately explain many heretofore enigmatical phenomena of nature. The discovery of radio-activity may, by explaining the interior heat of the great bodies of the universe, solve a difficulty which since the middle of the 19th century has been discussed by physicists and geologists-that of reconciling the long duration which geologists claim for the crust of the earth with the period during which physicists have deemed it possible that the sun should have radiated heat. Evidence is also accumulating to show that the sun and stars are radio-active bodies, and that emanations proceeding from the sun, and reaching the earth, have important relations to the phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism and the Aurora. The subject of Astrophysics does not admit of so definite a subdivision as that of Astrometry. The conclusions which researches relating to it have so far reached are treated in the articles STAR; SUN; COMET; NEBULA; AURORA POLARIS, &C. (S. N.) ASTRUC, JEAN (1684-1766), French physician and Biblical critic, was born on the 19th of March 1684 at Sauve, in Languedoc. ASTURA-ASTURIAS He graduated in medicine at Montpellier in 1703, and in 1710 | of 62 m.; after it rank the Navia and the Sella. The estuaries he was appointed to the chair of anatomy at Toulouse, which of these rivers are rarely navigable, and along the entire littoral, he retained till 1717, when he became professor of medicine a distance of 130 m., the only important harbours are at Gijón at Montpellier. Subsequently he was appointed successively and Avilés. superintendent of the mineral waters of Languedoc (1721), first physician to the king of Poland (1729), and regius professor of medicine at Paris (1731). He died on the 5th of May 1766 at Paris. Of his numerous works, that on which his fame principally rests is the treatise entitled De Morbis Venereis libri sex, 1736. In addition to other medical works he published anonymously Conjectures sur les mémoires originaux dont il parait que Moyse s'est servi pour composer le livre de la Genèse, (1753), in which he pointed out that two main sources can be traced in the book of Genesis; and two dissertations on the immateriality and immortality of the soul, 1755. See Hauck, Realencyk. f. prol. Theol., 1897, vol. ii. pp. 162-170. ASTURA, formerly an island, now a peninsula, on the coast of Latium, Italy, 7 m. S.E. of Antium, at the S.E. extremity of the Bay of Antium. The name also belongs to the river which flowed into the sea immediately to the S.E., at the mouth of which there was, according to Strabo, an anchorage. The medieval castle of the Frangipani, in which Conradin of Swabia vainly sought refuge after the battle of Tagliacozza in 1268, is built upon the foundations of a very large villa, of opus reticulatum with later additions in brickwork, and with a small harbour attached to it on the south-east. Remains of buildings also exist behind the sand dunes, which possibly mark the line of the channel which separated the island from the mainland, and these may have belonged to the post-station on the Via Severiana. As far as can be seen at present, there are remains of only one villa on the island itself;1 but along the coast a mile to the north-west a line of villas begins, which continues as far as Antium. To the south-east, on the other hand, remains are almost entirely absent, and this portion of the coast seems to have been as sparsely populated in Roman times as it is now. The island seems to have existed as such in the time of Pope Honorius III. Astura was the site of a favourite villa of Cicero, whither he retired on the death of his daughter Tullia in 45 B.C. It appears to have been unhealthy even in Roman times; according to Suetonius, both Augustus and Tiberius contracted here the illnesses which proved fatal to them. p. 207. See T. Ashby, in Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome (1905), ASTURIAS, an ancient province and principality of northern Spain, bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Old (T. As.) Castile, S. by Leon and W. by Galicia. area, 4205 sq. m. By the division of Spain in 1833, the province Pop. (1900) 627,069; took the name of Oviedo, though not to the exclusion, in ordinary usage, of the older designation. A full description of its modern condition OVIEDO; the present article being confined to an account of therefore given under the heading its physical features, its history, and the resultant character of its inhabitants. Asturias consists of a portion of the northern slope of the Cantabrian Mountains, and is covered in all directions with offshoots from the main chain, by which it is almost completely shut in on the south. The higher summits, which often reach a height of 7000-8000 ft., are usually covered with snow until July or August, and the whole region is one of the wildest and most picturesque parts of Spain. Until the first railway was opened, in the middle of the 19th century, few of the passes across the mountains were practicable for carriages, and most of them are difficult even for horses. A narrow strip of level moorland, covered with furze and rich in deposits of peat, coal and amber, stretches inland, from the edge of the sheer cliffs which line the coast, to the foot of the mountains. The province is watered by numerous streams and rivers, which have hollowed out deep valleys; but owing to the narrowness of the level tract, their courses are short, rapid and subject to floods. The most important is the Nalon or Pravia, which receives the waters of the Caudal, the Trubia and the Narcea, and has a course 1 Servius, in speaking of it as oppidum, must be referring to the post-station. served as the last refuge of the older races of Spain when hard pressed by successive invaders. Before the Roman conquest, A country so rugged, and so isolated by land and sea, naturally the Iberian tribe of Astures had been able to maintain itself independent of the Carthaginians, and to extend its territory as far south as the Douro. It was famous for its wealth in horses and gold. About 25 B.C., the Romans subjugated the district south of the Cantabrians, to which they gave the name of Augustana. Their capital was Asturica Augusta, the modern Astorga, in Leon. The warlike mountaineers of the northern Visigothic conquest, late in the 5th century. In 713, two years districts, known as Transmontana, never altogether abandoned after the defeat and death of Roderick, the last Visigothic king, their hostility to the Romans, whose rule was ended by the all Spain, except Galicia and Asturias, fell into the hands of the Moors. One of the surviving Christian leaders, Pelayo the Goth, took refuge with three hundred followers in the celebrated cave of Covadonga, or Cobadonga, near Cangas de Onís, and from this hiding-place undertook the Christian reconquest of Spain. The Asturians chose him as their king in 718, and although Galicia remoter fastnesses held by the levies of Pelayo. After his death in 737, the Asturians continued to offer the same heroic resistance, was lost in 734, the Moors proved unable to penetrate into the and ultimately enabled the people of Galicia, Leon and Castile to on the heir-apparent to the crown of Spain, dates from 1388, when it was first bestowed on a Castilian prince. The title of recover their liberty. The title of prince of Asturias, conferred count of Covadonga is assumed by the kings of Spain. In modern times Asturias formed a captaincy-general, divided into Asturias d'Oviedo, which corresponds with the limits of the ancient principality, and Asturias de Santillana, which now constitutes the western half of Santander. tion except that of the Romans and Goths, the Asturians may fauna and flora), see S. Canals, Asturias: informacion sobre su natural y médica de Asturias (Oviedo, 1900). For the history and antiquities, there is much that is valuable in Asturias monumental, epigráfica y diplomática, &c., by C. M. Vigil (Madrid, 1887)-folio, with maps and illustrations. See also F. de Aramburu y Zuloaga, Monografia de Asturias (Oviedo, 1899). ASTYAGES, the last king of the Median empire. In the inscriptions of Nabonidus the name is written Ishtuvegu (cylinder from Abu Habba V R 64, col. 1, 32; Annals, published by Pinches, Tr. Soc. Bibl. Arch. vii. col. 2, 2). According to Herodotus, he was the son of Cyaxares and reigned thirty-five years (584-550 B.C.); his wife was Aryenis, the daughter of Alyattes of Lydia (Herod. i. 74). About his reign we know little, as the narrative of Herodotus, which makes Cyrus the grandson of Astyages by his daughter Mandane, is merely a legend; the figure of Harpagus, who as general of the Median army betrays the king to Cyrus, alone seems to contain an historical element, as Harpagus and his family afterwards obtained a high position in the Persian empire. From the inscriptions of Nabonidus we learn that Cyrus, king of Anshan (Susiana), began war against him in 553 B.C.; in 550, when Astyages marched against Cyrus, his troops rebelled, and he was taken prisoner. Then Cyrus occupied and plundered Ecbatana. The captive king was treated fairly by Cyrus (Herod. i. 130), and according to Ctesias (Pers. 5, cf. Justin i. 6) made satrap of Hyrcania, where he was afterwards slain by Oebares against the will of Cyrus, who gave him a splendid funeral. Alexander Polyhistor and Abydenus in their excerpts from Berossus, which Eusebius (Chron. i. pp. 29 and 37) and Syncellus (p. 396) have preserved, give the name Astyages to the Median king who reigned in the time of the fall of Nineveh (606 B.C.), and became father-in-law of Nebuchadrezzar. This is evidently a mistake; the name ought to be Cyaxares (in the fragments of the Jewish history of Alexander Polyhistor, in Euseb. Praep. Ev. ix. 39, the name is converted into Astibaras, who, according to the unhistorical list of Ctesias, was the father of Astyages), and there is no reason to invent an earlier king Astyages I., as some modern authors have done. The Armenian historians render the name Astyages by Ashdahak, i.e. Azhi Dahaka (Zohak), the mythical king of the Iranian epics, who has nothing whatever to do with the historical king of the Medes. (ED. M.) ASTYLAR (from Gr. ȧ-, privative, and orûλos, a column), an architectural term given to a class of design in which neither columns nor pilasters are used for decorative purposes; thus the Ricardi and Strozzi palaces in Florence arc astylar in their design, in contradistinction to Palladio's palaces at Vicenza, which are columnar. was founded by Ayolas in 1535, and is the oldest permanent ASVINS, in Hindu mythology, twin deities of light. After Indra, Agni and Soma, they are the most prominent divinities in the Rig-Veda, and have more than fifty entire hymns addressed to them. Their exact attributes are obscure. They appear to be the spirits of dawn, the earliest bringers of light in the morning sky; they hasten on in the clouds before Dawn and prepare the way for her. In some hymns they are called sons of the sun; in others, children of the sky; in others, offspring of the ocean. They are youngest of the gods, bright lords of lustre, honey-hued. They are inseparable. The sole purpose of one hymn is to compare them with different twin objects, such as eyes, hands, feet and wings. They have a common wife, Surya. They are physicians, protectors of the weak and old, especially of elderly unmarried women. They are the friends of lovers, and bless marriages and make them fruitful. See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897). ASYLUM (from Gr. ȧ-, privative, and σúλŋ, right of seizure), a place of refuge. In ancient Greece, an asylum was an “inviolable" refuge for persons fleeing from pursuit and in search of protection. In a general sense, all Greek temples and altars were inviolable, that is, it was a religious crime to remove by force any person or thing once under the protection of a deity. But it was only in the case of a small number of temples that this protecting right of a deity was recognized with common consent. Such were the sanctuaries of Zeus Lycaeus in Arcadia, of Poseidon in the island of Calauria, and of Apollo at Delos; they were, however, numerous in Asia Minor. They guaranteed absolute security to the suppliant within their limits. The right of sanctuary, originally possessed by all temples, appears to have become limited to a few in consequence of abuses of it. Asylums in this sense were peculiar to the Greeks. The asylum of Romulus (Livy i. 8), which was probably the altar of Veiovis, cannot be considered as such. Under Roman dominion, the rights of existing Greek sanctuaries were at first confirmed, but their number was considerably reduced by Tiberius. Under the Empire, the statues of the emperors and the eagles of the legions were made refuges against acts of violence. Generally speaking, the classes of persons who claimed the rights of asylum were slaves who had been maltreated by their masters, soldiers defeated and pursued by the enemy, and criminals who feared a trial or who had escaped before sentence was passed. (See treatises De Asylis Graecis, by Förster, 1847; Jaenisch, 1868; Barth, 1888.) With the establishment of Christianity, the custom of asylum or sanctuary (q.v.) became attached to the church or churchyard. In modern times the word asylum has come to mean an institution providing shelter or refuge for any class of afflicted or destitute persons, such as the blind, deaf and dumb, &c., but more particularly the insane. (See INSANITY.) ASUNCIÓN (NUESTRA SEÑORA DE LA ASUNCIÓN), a city and port of Paraguay, and capital of the republic, on the left bank of the Paraguay river in 25° 16′ 04′′ S., 57° 42′ 40′′ W., and 970 m. above Buenos Aires. Pop. (est. in 1900) 52,000. The port is connected with Buenos Aires and Montevideo by regular lines of river steamers, which are its only means of trade communication with the outer world, and with the inland town of Villa Rica (95 m.) by a railway worked by an English company. The city faces upon a curve in the river bank forming what is called the Bay of Asunción, and is built on a low sandy plain, rising to pretty hillsides overlooking the bay and the low, wooded country of the Chaco on the opposite shore. The general elevation is only 253 ft. above sea-level. Asunción is laid out on a regular plan, the credit for which is largely due to Dictator Francia; the principal streets are paved and lighted by gas and electricity; and telephone and street-car services are maintained. The climate is hot but healthful, the mean annual temperature being about 72° E. The city is the seat of a bishopric dating from 1547, and contains a large number of religious edifices. It has a national college and public library, but no great progress in education has been made. The most prominent edifice in the city is the palace begun by the younger Lopez, which is now occupied by a bank. There are some business edifices and residences of considerable architectural merit, but the greater part are small and inconditions therein laid down invariably show that nations regard spicuous, a majority of the residences being thatched, mudwalled cabins. Considerable progress was made during the last two decades of the 19th century, however, notwithstanding misgovernment and the extreme poverty of the people. Asunción ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. droit d'asile; Ger. Asylrecht), in international law, the right which a state possesses, by virtue of the principle that every independent state is sole master within its boundaries, of allowing fugitives from another country to enter or sojourn upon its territory. Extradition (q.v.) treaties are undertakings between states curtailing the exercise of the right of asylum in respect of refugees from justice, but the con the maintenance of this right of asylum as intimately connected with their right of independent action, however weak as states they may be, on their own soil. The neutral right to grant asylum to belligerent forces is now governed by articles 57, 58 occurs also, with malachite, at Bembe, near Ambriz, in West and 59 of the regulations annexed to the Hague Convention of | copper-mines of South Australia, especially at Wallaroo. It the 29th of July 1899, relating to the Laws and Customs of War on Land. (See WAR.) (T. BA.) ATACAMA, a province of northern Chile, bounded N. and S. respectively by the provinces of Antofagasta and Coquimbo, and extending from the Pacific coast E. to the Argentine boundary line. It has an area of 30,729 sq. m., lying in great part within the Atacama desert region (see below), and a population (1902) of 71,446. The silver and copper mines of the province are numerous, some of them ranking among the most productive❘ known, but the majority are worked with limited capital and on a small scale. The silver ore was first discovered in 1832 by a shepherd at a place which bears his name, Juan Godoi. The nitrate and borax deposits are extensive and productive, and common salt is a natural product of large areas in the elevated desert regions of the Andes. The exports include copper and silver and their ores, nitrate of soda, borax, guano and other minerals in small quantities. The capital, Copiapó (est. pop. 8991 in 1902), is situated on a small river of the same name 37 m. from the coast and 51 m. south-east by rail from Caldera, the principal port of this great mining district. Before 1842, when guano began to attract notice as an exportable product, Atacama was considered as Bolivian territory, and Coquimbo the extreme northern province of Chile. In that year Chile decided to explore the desert coast, and in 1843 that part of the desert extending north to the 26th parallel was organized into the province of Atacama. ATACAMA, DESERT OF, an arid, barren and saline region of western South America, covering the greater part of the Chilean provinces of Atacama and Antofagasta, the Argentine territory of Los Andes, and the south-western corner of the Bolivian department of Potosí. The higher elevations are known as the Puna de Atacama, which is practically a continuation southward of the great puna region of Peru and Bolivia. It is a broken, mountainous region, volcanic in places, saline in others, and ranges from 7000 to 13,500 ft. in general elevation. Its culminating ridges are marked by an irregular line of peaks and extinct volcanoes extending north by cast from about 28° S. into southern Bolivia. On the eastern side, occasional rainfalls occur and streams from the snow-clads peaks produce some slight displays of fertility, but the general aspect of the plateaus, which are dry and cold in winter and in summer are swept by rainstorms and covered by occasional tufts of coarse grass, is barren and forbidding. They are also broken by great saline lagoons and dry salt basins. This region forms the Argentine territory of Los Andes and is habitable in places. On the western slope the land descends gradually to the Pacific, being broken into great basins, or terraces, by mountainous ridges in its higher elevations, widening out into gently-sloping sandy plains below, famous for their nitrate deposits, and terminating on the coast with sharply-sloping bluffs, having an elevation of 800 to 1500 ft., and looking from the sea like a range of flat-topped hills. This desolate region, which is rainless and absolutely barren, and was considered worthless for three and a half centuries, is now a treasure-house of mineral wealth, abounding in copper, silver, lead, nickel, cobalt, iron, nitrates and borax. It is occupied by many mining settlements, and includes some of the most productive copper and silver mines of the world. See L. Darapsky," Zur Geographie der Puna de Atacama," Zeits. ATACAMITE, a mineral found originally in the desert of Atacama, and named by D. de Gallizen in 1801. It is a cupric oxychloride, having the formula CuCl2.3Cu(OH)2, and crystallizing in the orthorhombic system. Its hardness is about 3 and its specific gravity 3.7, while its colour presents various shades of green, usually dark. Atacamite is a comparatively rare mineral, formed in some cases by the action of sea-water on various copper-ores, and occurring also as a volcanic product on Vesuvian lavas. Some of the finest crystals have been yielded by the ATAHUALLPA (alaku, Lat. virtus, and all pa, sweet), "the last of the Incas " (or Yncas) of Peru, was the son of the ruler Huayna Capac, by Pacha, the daughter of the conquered sovereign of Quito. His brother Huascar succeeded Huayna Capac in 1527; for, as Atahuallpa was not descended on both sides from the line of Incas, Peruvian law considered him illegitimate. He obtained, however, the kingdom of Quito. A jealous feeling soon sprang up between him and Huascar, who insisted that Quito should be held as a dependent province of his empire. A civil war broke out between the brothers, and, about the time when the Spanish conqueror Pizarro was beginning to move inland from the town of San Miguel, Huascar had been defeated and thrown into prison, and Atahuallpa had become Inca. Pizarro set out in September 1532, and made for Caxamarca, where the Inca was. Messengers passed frequently between them, and the Spaniards on their march were hospitably received by the inhabitants. On the 15th of November, Pizarro entered Caxamarca, and sent his brother and Ferdinando de Soto to request an interview with the Inca. On the evening of the next day, Atahuallpa entered the great square of Caxamarca, accompanied by some five or six thousand men, who were either unarmed or armed only with short clubs and slings concealed under their dresses. Pizarro's artillery and soldiers were planted in readiness in the streets opening off the square. The interview was carried on by the priest Vicente de Valverde, who addressed the Inca through an interpreter. He stated briefly and dogmatically the principal points of the Christian faith and the Roman Catholic policy, and concluded by calling upon Atahuallpa to become a Christian, obey the commands of the pope, give up the administration of his kingdom, and pay tribute to Charles V., to whom had been granted the conquest of these lands. To this extraordinary harangue, which from its own nature and the faults of the interpreter must have been completely unintelligible, the Inca at first returned a very temperate answer. He pointed out what seemed to him certain difficulties in the Christian religion, and declined to accept as monarch of his dominions this Charles, of whom he knew nothing. He then took a bible from the priest's hands, and, after looking at it, threw it violently from him, and began a more impassioned speech, in which he exposed the designs of the Spaniards, and upbraided them with the cruelties they had perpetrated. The priest retired, and Pizarro at once gave the signal for attack. The Spaniards rushed out suddenly, and the Peruvians, astonished and defenceless, were cut down in hundreds. Pizarro himself seized the Inca, and in endeavouring to preserve him alive, received, accidentally, on his hand the only wound inflicted that day on a Spaniard. Atahuallpa, thus treacherously captured, offered an enormous sum of money as a ransom, and fulfilled his engagement; but Pizarro still detained him, until the Spaniards should have arrived in sufficient numbers to secure the country. While in captivity, Atahuallpa gave secret orders for the assassination of his brother Huascar, and also endeavoured to raise an army to expel the invaders. His plans were betrayed, and Pizarro at once brought him to trial. He was condemned to death, and, as being an idolator, to death by fire. Atahuallpa, however, professed himself a Christian, received baptism, and his sentence was then altered into death by strangulation (August 29, 1533). His body was afterwards burned, and the ashes conveyed to Quito. (See also PERU: History.) ATALANTA, in Greek legend, the name of two Greek heroines. (1) The Arcadian Atalanta was the daughter of Iasius or Iasion and Clymene. At her birth, she had been exposed on a hill, her father having expected a son. At first she was suckled by a she-bear, and then saved by huntsmen, among whom she grew up to be skilled with the bow, swift, and fond of the chase, I worshipping at the shrine of Aphrodite, and by him became the like the virgin goddess Artemis. At the Calydonian boar-hunt mother of Semiramis, the Assyrian queen, and how in shame her arrows were the first to hit the monster, for which its head she flung herself into a pool at Ascalon or Hierapolis and was and hide were given her by Meleager. At the funeral games changed into a fish (W. Robertson Smith in Eng. Hist. Rev. ii., of Pelias, she wrestled with Peleus, and won. For a long time 1887). In another story she was hatched from an egg found she remained true to Artemis and rejected all suitors, but by some fish in the Euphrates and by them thrust on the bank Meilanion at last gained her love by his persistent devotion. where it was hatched by a dove; out of gratitude she persuaded She was the mother of Parthenopaeus, one of the Seven against Jupiter to transfer the fish to the Zodiac (cf. Ovid, Fast. ii. Thebes (Apollodorus iii. 9; Hyginus, Fab. 99). (2) The 459-474, Metam. v. 331). Boeotian Atalanta was the daughter of Schoeneus. She was famed for her running, and would only consent to marry a suitor who could outstrip her in a race, the consequence of failure being death. Hippomenes, before starting, had obtained from Aphrodite three golden apples, which he dropped at intervals, and Atalanta, stopping to pick them up, fell behind. Both were happy at the result; but forgetting to thank the goddess for the apples, they were led by her to a religious crime, and were transformed into lions by the goddess Cybele (Ovid, Metam. x. 560; Hyginus, Fab. 185). The characteristics of these two heroines (frequently confounded) point to their being secondary forms of the Arcadian Artemis. ATARGATIS, a Syrian deity, known to the Greeks by a shortened form of the name, Derketo (Strabo xvi. c. 785; Pliny, Nat. Hist. v. 23. 81), and as Dea Syria, or in one word Deasura (Lucian, de Dea Syria). She is generally described as the "fish-goddess." The name is a compound of two divine names; the first part is a form of the Himyaritic 'Athtar, the equivalent of the Old Testament Ashtoreth, the Phoenician Astarte (q.v.), with the feminine ending omitted (Assyr. Ishtar); the second is a Palmyrene name 'Athe (i.e. tempus opportunum), which occurs as part of many compounds. As a consequence of the first half of the name, Atargatis has frequently, though wrongly, been identified with Astarte. The two deities were, no doubt, of common origin, but their cults are historically distinct. In 2 Macc. xii. 26 we find reference to an Atargateion or Atergateion (temple of Atargatis) at Carnion in Gilead (cf. 1 Macc. v. 43), but the home of the goddess was unquestionably not Palestine, but Syria proper, expecially at Hierapolis (q.v.), where she had a great temple. From Syria her worship extended to Greece, Italy and the furthest west. Lucian and Apuleius give descriptions of the beggar-priests who went round the great cities with an image of the goddess on an ass and collected money. The wide extension of the cult is attributable largely to Syrian merchants; thus we find traces of it in the great seaport towns; at Delos especially numerous inscriptions have been found bearing witness to its importance. Again we find the cult in Sicily, introduced, no doubt, by slaves and mercenary troops, who carried it even to the farthest northern limits of the Roman empire. In many cases, however, Atargatis and Astarte are fused to such an extent as to be indistinguishable. This fusion is exemplified by the Carnion temple, which is probably identical with the famous temple of Astarte at Ashtaroth-Karnaim. Atargatis appears generally as the wife of Hadad (Baal). They are the protecting deities of the community. Atargatis, in the capacity of noλiouxos, wears a mural crown, is the ancestor of the royal house, the founder of social and religious life, the goddess of generation and fertility (hence the prevalence of phallic emblems), and the inventor of useful appliances. Not unnaturally she is identified with the Greek Aphrodite. By the conjunction of these many functions, she becomes ultimately a great Nature-Goddess, analogous to Cybele' and Rhea (see GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS); in one aspect she typifies the function of water in producing life; in another, the universal mother-earth (Macrobius, Saturn, i. 23); in a third (influenced, no doubt, by Chaldaean astrology), the power of destiny. The legends are numerous and of an astrological character, intended to account for the Syrian dove-worship and abstinence from fish (see the story in Athenaeus viii. 37, where Atargatis is derived from arep Táridos," without Gatis," a queen who is said to have forbidden the eating of fish). Thus Diodorus Siculus, using Ctesias, tells how she fell in love with a youth who was See articles s.v. in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. (1897), by W. Baudissin; and Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyc.; Fr. Baethgen, Beiträge zur Semit. Religiongesch. (1888); R. Pietschmann, Gesch. der Phonisier (1889). ATAULPHUS (the Latinized form of the Gothic Ataulf, "Father-wolf," from atta, father, and vulfs, wolf; mod. Germ. Adolf, Latinized as Adolphus, the form used by Gibbon for the subject of this article), king of the Goths (d. 415). On the death of Alaric (q.v.) his followers acclaimed his brother-in-law Ataulphus as king. In 412 he quitted Italy and led his army across the Alps into Gaul. Here he fought against some of the usurpers who threatened the throne of Honorius; he made some sort of compact with that emperor and, in 414, he married his sister Placidia, who had been since the siege of Rome a captive in the camp of the Goths. The ex-emperor Attalus danced at the marriage festival, which was celebrated with great pomp at Narbonne. In 415 Ataulphus crossed the Pyrenees into Spain and died at Barcelona, being assassinated by a groom. most important fact in his history is his confession, recorded by Orosius, that he saw the inability of his countrymen to rear a civilized or abiding kingdom, and that consequently his aim should be to build on Roman foundations and blend the two nations into one. The ATAVISM (from Lat. alavus, a great-great-great-grandfather or ancestor), the term given in biology to the reproduction in a living person or animal of the characteristics of an ancestor more remote than its parents (see HEREDITY). Loosely used, it connotes a reversion to an earlier type. Individuals reproduce unexpectedly the traits of earlier ancestors, and ethnologists and criminologists frequently explain by atavism" the occurrence of degenerate species of man; but the whole subject is complicated by other possible explanations of such phenomena, included in the scientific study of normal "variation." ATBARA (Bahr-el-Aswad, or Black River), the most northern affluent of the river Nile, N.E. Africa. It rises in Abyssinia to the N.W. of Lake Tsana, unites its waters with a number of other rivers which also rise in the Abyssinian highlands, and flows north-west 800 m. till its junction at Ed Damer with the Nile (q.v.). The battle of the Atbara, fought near Nakheila, a place on the north bank of the river about 30 m. above Ed Damer, on the 8th of April 1898, between the khalifa's forces under Mahmud and Sir Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener's Anglo-Egyptian army, resulted in the complete defeat of the Mahdists and the capture of their leader, and paved the way for the decisive battle of Omdurman on the 2nd of September following (see EGYPT: Military Operations). ATCHISON, a city and the county-seat of Atchison county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the west bank of the Missouri river, which is navigable at this point but is utilized comparatively little for commerce. Pop. (1890) 13,963; (1900) 15,722, of whom 2508 were of negro descent and 1308 were foreign-born; (1910) 16,429. Atchison is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Missouri Pacific railways. The city is the scat of Midland College (Lutheran, 1887), St Benedict's College (Roman Catholic, 1858) for boys, Mt. Scholastica Academy (Roman Catholic) for girls, and Western Theological Seminary (Evangelical-Lutheran, 1893); a state soldiers' orphans' home is also located here. Atchison's situation and transportation facilities make it an important supply-centre, its trade in grains and live-stock being particularly large; it has large railway machine shops, and its principal manufactures are flour, furniture, lumber, hardware and drugs. The value of the city's factory |