AUDIFFRET-PASquier, edme armand gaston, Duc D' (1823-1905), French statesman, was the grand-nephew and adopted son of Baron Etienne Denis Pasquier. He was created duke in 1844, and became auditor at the council of state in 1846. After the revolution of 1848 he retired to private life. Under the empire he was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the legislature, but was elected in February 1871 to the National Assembly, and became president of the right centre in 1873. After the fall of Thiers, he directed the negotiations between the different royalist parties to establish a king in France, but as he refused to give up the tricolour for the flag of the old régime, the project failed. Yet he retained the confidence of the chamber, and was its president in 1875 when the constitutional laws were being drawn up. Nominated senator under the new constitution, he likewise was president of the senate from March 1876 to 1879 when his party lost the majority. Henceforth he was less prominent in politics. He was distinguished by his moderation and uprightness; and he did his best to dissuade MacMahon from taking violent advisers. In 1878 he was elected to the French Academy, but never published anything.

AUDIT and AUDITOR. An audit is the examination of the accounts kept by the financial officers of a state, public corporations and bodies, or private persons, and the certifying of their accuracy. In the United Kingdom the public accounts were audited from very early times, though, until the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in no very systematic way. Prior to 1559 this duty was carried out, sometimes by auditors specially appointed, at other times by the auditors of the land revenue, or by the auditor of the exchequer, an office established as early as 1314. But in 1559 an endeavour was made to systematize the auditing of the public accounts, by the appointment of two auditors of the imprests. These officers were paid by fee and did their work by deputy, but as the results were thoroughly unsatisfactory the offices were abolished in 1785. An audit board, consisting❘ of five commissioners, was appointed in their place, but in order to concentrate under one authority the auditing of the accounts of the various departments, some of which had been audited separately, as the naval accounts, the Exchequer and Audit Act of 1866 was passed. This statute, which sets forth at length the duties of the audit office, empowered the sovereign to appoint a "comptroller and auditor-general," with the requisite staff to examine and verify the accounts prepared by the different departments of the public service. In examining accounts of the appropriation of the several supply grants, the comptroller and auditor-general "ascertains first whether the payments which the account department has charged to the grant are supported by vouchers or proofs of payments; and second, whether the money expended has been applied to the purpose or purposes for which such grant was intended to provide." The treasury may also submit certain other accounts to the audit of the comptroller-general. All public moneys payable to the exchequer (q.v.) are paid to the "account of His Majesty's exchequer" at the Bank of England, and daily returns of such payments are forwarded to the comptroller. Quarterly accounts of the income and charge of the consolidated fund are prepared and transmitted to him, and in case of any deficiency in the consolidated fund, he may certify to the bank to make advances. In the United States the auditing of the Federal accounts is in the charge of the treasury department, under the supervision of the comptroller of the treasury, under whom are six auditors, (1) for the treasury department, (2) for the war, (3) for the interior, (4) for the navy, (5) for the state, &c., (6) for the post office, as well as a register and assistant register, who keep all

in most of the states and in many cities. In practically all European countries there is a department of the administration, charged with the auditing of the public accounts, as the cour des comptes in France, the Rechnungshof des deutschen Reiches in Germany, &c. All local boards, large cities, corporations, and other bodies have official auditors for the purpose of examining and checking their accounts and looking after their expenditure. So far as regards the work which auditors discharge in connexion with the accounts of joint-stock companies, building societies, friendly societies, industrial and provident societies, savings banks, &c., the word auditor is now almost synonymous with "skilled accountant," and his duties are discussed in the article ACCOUNTANTS.

In Scotland there is an "auditor" who is an official of the court of session, appointed to tax costs in litigation, and who corresponds to the English taxing-master. In France there are legal officers, called auditors, attached to the Conseil d'État, whose duties consist in drawing up briefs and preparing documents. On the continent of Europe, lawyers skilled in military law are called "auditors" (see MILITARY LAW).

Auditor is also the designation of certain officials of the Roman curia. The auditores Rotae are the judges of the court of the Rota (so called, according to Hinschius, probably from the form of the panelling in the room where they originally met). These were originally ecclesiastics appointed to hear particular questions in dispute and report to the pope, who retained the decision in his own hands. In the Speculum juris of Durandus (published in 1272 and re-edited in 1287 and 1291) the auditores palatii domini papae are cited as permanent officials appointed to instruct the pope on questions as they arose. The court of the Rota appears for the first time under this name in the bull Romani Pontificis of Martin V. in 1422, and the auditores by this time had developed into a permanent tribunal to which the definitive decision of certain disputes, hitherto relegated to a commission of cardinals or to the pope himself, was assigned. From this time the powers of the auditores increased until the reform of the curia by Sixtus V., when the creation of the congregations of cardinals for specific purposes tended gradually to withdraw from the Rota its most important functions. It still, however, ranks as the supreme court of justice in the papal curia, and, as members of it, the auditores enjoy special privileges. They are prelates, and, besides the rights enjoyed by these, have others conceded by successive popes, e.g. that of holding benefices in plurality, of non-residence, &c. When the pope says mass pontifically the subdeacon is always an auditor. The auditores must be in priest's or deacon's orders, and have always been selected-nominally at least-after severe tests as to their moral and intellectual qualifications. They are twelve in number, and, by the constitution of Pius IV., four of them were to be foreigners: one French, one Spanish, one German and one Venetian; while the nomination of others was the privilege of certain cities. No bishop, unless in partibus (see BISHOP), may be an auditor. On the other hand, from the auditores, as the intellectual élite of the curia, the episcopate, the nunciature and the cardinalate are largely recruited. The auditor camerae (uditore generale della reverenda camera apostolica) is an official formerly charged with important executive functions. In 1485, by a bull of Innocent VIII., he was given extensive jurisdiction over all civil and criminal causes arising in the curia, or appealed to it from the papal territories. In addition he received the function of watching over the execution of all sentences passed by the curia. This was extended later, by Pius IV., to a similar executive function in respect of all papal bulls and briefs, wherever no special executor was named. This right was confirmed by Gregory XVI. in 1834, and the auditor may still in principle issue letters monitory. In practice, however, this function was at all times but rarely exercised, and, since 1847, has fallen to a prelate locum tenens, who also took over the auditor's jurisdiction in the papal states (Hinschius, Kathol. Kirchenrecht, i. 409, &c.). Auditores (listeners), in the early Church, was another name for catechumens (g.v.).

AUDLEY, or AUDELEY, SIR JAMES (c. 1316-1386), one of the original knights, or founders, of the order of the Garter, was the eldest son of Sir James Audley of Stratton Audley in Oxfordshire. When the order of the Garter was founded, he was instituted as one of the first founders, and his stall in St George's chapel, Windsor, was the eleventh on the side of Edward, the Black Prince. He appears to have served in France in 1346, and in August 1350 took part in the naval fight off Sluys. When hostilities were renewed between England and France in 1354 Sir James was in constant attendance upon the Black Prince, and earned a great reputation for valour. At the battle of Poitiers on the 19th of September 1356 he took his stand in front of the English army, and after fighting for a long time was severely wounded and carried from the fight. After the victory, the prince inquired for Sir James, who was brought to the royal tent, where Edward told him he had been the bravest knight on his side, and granted him an annuity of five hundred marks. Sir James made over this gift to the four esquires who had attended him during the battle, and received from the prince a further pension of six hundred marks. In 1359 he was one of the leaders of an expedition into France, in 1360 he took the fortress of Chaven in Brittany, and was present at Calais when peace was made between England and France in October 1360. He was afterwards governor of Aquitaine and great seneschal of Poitou, and took part in the capture of the town of La Rochesur-Yon by Edmund, earl of Cambridge. He died in 1386 at Fontenay-le-Comte, where he had gone to reside, and was buried at Poitiers.

See Jean Froissart. Chroniques, translated by T. Johnes (Hafod, 1810); G. F. Beltz, Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (London, 1841).

AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY, BARON (c. 1488-1544), lord chancellor of England, whose parentage is unknown, is believed to have studied at Buckingham College, Cambridge. He was educated for the law, entered the Middle Temple (becoming autumn reader in 1526), was town clerk of Colchester, and was on the commission of the peace for Essex in 1521. In 1523 he was returned to parliament for Essex, and represented this constituency in subsequent parliaments. In 1527 he was groom of the chamber, and became a member of Wolsey's household. On the fall of the latter in 1529, he was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and the same year speaker of the House of Commons, presiding over the famous assembly styled the Black or Long Parliament of the Reformation, which abolished the papal jurisdiction. The same year he headed a deputation of the Commons to the king to complain of Bishop Fisher's speech against their proceedings. He interpreted the king's "moral " scruples to parliament concerning his marriage with Catherine, and made himself the instrument of the king in the attack upon the clergy and the preparation of the act of supremacy. In 1531 he had been made a serjeant-at-law and king's serjeant; and on the 20th of May 1532 he was knighted, and succeeded Sir Thomas More as lord keeper of the great seal, being appointed lord chancellor on the 26th of January 1533. He supported the king's divorce from Catherine and the marriage with Anne Boleyn, and presided at the trial of Fisher and More in 1535, at which his conduct and evident intention to secure a conviction has been generally censured. Next year he tried Anne Boleyn and her lovers, was present on the scaffold at the unfortunate queen's execution, and recommended to parliament the new act of succession. In 1537 he condemned to death as traitors the Lincolnshire and the Yorkshire rebels. On the 29th of November 1538 he was created Baron Audley of Walden; and soon after wards presided as lord steward at the trials of Henry Pole, Lord Montacute, and of the unfortunate marquess of Exeter. In 1539, though inclining himself to the Reformation, he made himself the king's instrument in enforcing religious conformity, and in the passing of the Six Articles Act. On the 24th of April 1540 he was made a knight of the Garter, and subsequently managed the attainder of Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, and the dissolution of Henry's marriage with Anne of Cleves. In 1542 he warmly supported the privileges of the Commons in the

case of George Ferrers, member for Plymouth, arrested and imprisoned in London, but his conduct was inspired as usual by subservience to the court, which desired to secure a subsidy, and his opinion that the arrest was a flagrant contempt has been questioned by good authority. He resigned the great seal on the 21st of April 1544, and died on.the 30th, being buried at Saffron Walden, where he had prepared for himself a splendid tomb. He received several grants of monastic estates, including the priory of Christ Church in London and the abbey of Walden in Essex, where his grandson, Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, built Audley End, doubtless named after him. In 1542 he re-endowed and re-established Buckingham College, Cambridge, under the new name of St Mary Magdalene, and ordained in the statutes that his heirs," the possessors of the late monastery of Walden," should be visitors of the college in perpetuum. A Book of Orders for the Warre both by Sea and Land (Harleian MS. 297, f. 144) is attributed to his authorship. He married (1) Christina, daughter of Sir Thomas Barnardiston, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Grey, marquess of Dorset, by whom he had two daughters. His barony became extinct at his death. AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR (1797-1841), French naturalist, was born at Paris on the 27th of April 1797. He began the study of law, but was diverted from it by his strong predilection for natural history, and entered the medical profession. In 1824 he was appointed assistant to P. A. Latreille (1762-1833) in the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural history, and succeeded him in 1833. In 1838 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. He died in Paris on the 9th of November 1841. His principal work, Histoire des insectes nuisibles à la vigne (1842), was completed after his death by Henry MilneEdwards and Emile Blanchard. His papers mostly appeared in the Annales des sciences naturelles, which, with A. T. Brongniart and J. B. A. Dumas, he founded in 1824, and in the proceedings of the Société Entomologique de France, of which he was one of the founders in 1832.

AUDRAN, the name of a family of French artists and engravers. The first who devoted himself to the art of engraving was Claude Audran, born 1597, and the last was Benoit, Claude's great-grandson, who died in 1772. The two most distinguished members of the family are Gérard and Jean.

GÉRARD, or GIRARD, AUDRAN, the most celebrated French engraver, was the third son of Claude Audran, and was born at Lyons in 1640. He was taught the first principles of design and engraving by his father; and, following the example of his brother, went to Paris to perfect himself in his art. He there, in 1666, engraved for Le Brun "Constantine's Battle with Maxentius," his "Triumph," and the "Stoning of Stephen," which gave great satisfaction to the painter, and placed Audran in the very first rank of engravers at Paris. Next year he set out for Rome, where he resided three years, and engraved several fine plates. That great patron of the arts, J. B. Colbert, was so struck with the beauty of Audran's works, that he persuaded Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On his return he applied himself assiduously to engraving, and was appointed engraver to the king, from whom he received great encouragement. In the year 1681 he was admitted to the council of the Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings of Le Brun's "Battles of Alexander" are regarded as the best of his numerous works. "He was," says the Abbé Fontenay, "the most celebrated engraver that ever existed in the historical line. We have several subjects, which he engraved from his own designs, that manifested as much taste as character and facility. But in the Battles of Alexander' he surpassed even the expectations of Le Brun himself." Gérard published in 1683 a work entitled Les Proportions du corps humain mesurées sur les plus belles figures de l'antiquité.

JEAN AUDRAN, nephew of Gérard, was born at Lyons in 1667. After having received instructions from his father, he went to Paris to perfect himself in the art of engraving under his uncle, next to whom he was the most distinguished member of his family. At the age of twenty his genius began to display itself in a surprising manner; and his subsequent success was such, that

The first collected edition of Auerbach's Schriften appeared in 22 vols. in 1863-1864; the best edition is in 18 vols. (1892-1895). Auerbach's Briefe an seinen Freund J. Auerbach (with a preface by F. Spielhagen) were published in 2 vols. (1884). See E. Zabel, B. Auerbach (1882); and E. Lasker, B. Auerbach, ein Gedenkblatt (1882). AUERSPERG, Anton alexandER, Graf von (1806-1876), Austrian poet, who wrote under the pseudonym of ANASTASIUS GRÜN, was born on the 11th of April 1806, at Laibach, the capital of the Austrian duchy of Carniola, and was head of the Thurn-amHart branch of the Carniolan cadet line of the house of Auersperg. He received his university education first at Graz and then at Vienna, where he studied jurisprudence. In 1830 he succeeded to his ancestral property, and in 1832 appeared as a member of the estates of Carniola on the Herrenbank of the diet at Laibach. Here he distinguished himself by his outspoken criticism of the Austrian government, leading the opposition of the duchy to the exactions of the central power. In 1832 the title of imperial chamberlain " was conferred upon him, and in 1839 he married Maria, daughter of Count Attems. After the revolution of 1848 at Vienna he represented the district of Laibach at the German national assembly at Frankfort-on-theMain, to which he tried in vain to persuade his Slovene compatriots to send representatives. After a few months, however, disgusted with the violent development of the revolution, he resigned his seat, and again retired into private life. In 1860 he was summoned to the remodelled Reichsrat by the emperor, who next year nominated him a life member of the Austrian upper house (Herrenhaus), where, while remaining a keen uphoider of the German centralized empire, as against the federalism of Slavs and Magyars, he greatly distinguished himself as one of the most intrepid and influential supporters of the cause of liberalism, in both political and religious matters, until his death at Graz on the 12th of September 1876.

Count Auersperg's first publication, a collection of lyrics, Blätter der Liebe (1830), showed little originality; but his second production, Der letzte Ritter (1830), brought his genius to light. It celebrates the deeds and adventures of the emperor Maximilian I. (1493-1519) in a cycle of poems written in the strophic form of the Nibelungenlied. But Auersperg's fame rests almost exclusively on his political poetry; two collections entitled Spaziergänge eines Wiener Poeten (1831) and Schutt (1835) created a sensation in Germany by their originality and bold liberalism. These two books, which are remarkable not merely for their outspoken opinions, but also for their easy versification and powerful imagery, were the forerunners of the German political poetry of 1840-1848. His Gedichte (1837), if anything, increased his reputation; his epics, Die Nibelungen im Frack (1843) and Der Pfaff vom Kahlenberg (1850), are characterized by a fine ironic humour. He also produced masterly translations of the popular Slovenic songs current in Carniola (Volkslieder aus Krain, 1850), and of the English poems relating to “ Robin Hood" (1864).

Anastasius Grün's Gesammelte Werke were published by L. A. Frankl in 5 vols. (Berlin, 1877); his Briefwechsel mit L. A. Frankl (Berlin, 1897). A selection of his Politische Reden und Schriften has been published by S. Hock (Vienna, 1906). See P. von Radics, Anastasius Grun (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1879).

AUFIDENA, an ancient city of the Samnites Caraceni, the site of which is just north of the modern Alfedena,' Italy, a station on the railway between Sulmona and Isernia, 37 m. from the latter. Its remains are fully and accurately described by L. Mariani in Monumenti dei Lincei (1901), 225 seq.: cf. Notizie degli scavi, 1901, 442 seq.; 1902, 516 seq. The ancient city occupied two hills, both over 3800 ft. above sea-level (in the valley between were found the supposed remains of the later forum), and the walls, of rough Cyclopean work, were over a mile in Two churches here contain paintings of interest in the history of Abruzzese art, and one of them, the Madonna del Campo, contained fragments of a temple of considerable size.

Not very much is as yet known of the city itself (though one public building of the 5th century B.C. was excavated in 1901, and a small sanctuary in 1902), attention having been chiefly devoted to the necropolis which lay below it; 1400 tombs had already been examined in 1908, though this number is conjectured to be only a sixteenth of the whole. They are all inhumation burials, of the advanced iron age, and date from the 7th to the 4th century B.C., falling into three classes-those without coffin, those with a coffin formed of stone slabs, and those with a coffin formed of tiles. The objects discovered are preserved in a museum on the spot. In the Roman period we find Aufidena figuring as a post station on the road between Sulmo and Aesernia, which, however, runs past Castel di Sangro, crossing the river by an ancient bridge some 5 m. to the northCastel di Sangro has remains of ancient walls, but these are attributed to a road by Mariani, and in any case the fortified area there was quite small, only one-sixteenth the size of Aufidena. The attempted identification of Castel di Sangro with Aufidena must therefore be rejected, though we must allow that it was probably the Roman post station; the ancient city, since its capture by the Romans in the 3rd century B.C., having lost something of its importance. (T. As.)

east.

AUGEAS, or AUGEIAS, in Greek legend, a son of Helios, the sun-god, and king of the Epeians in Elis. He possessed an immense wealth of herds, including twelve bulls sacred to Helios, and white as swans. Eurystheus imposed upon Heracles the task of clearing out all his stalls unaided in one day. This he did by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through them. Augeas had promised him a tenth of the herd, but refused this, alleging that Heracles had acted only in the service of Eurystheus. Heracles thereupon sent an army against him, and, though at first defeated, finally slew Augeas and his sons. Apollodorus ii. 5, 7; Pindar, Olympia, xi, 24; Diodorus iv. 13: Theocritus, Idyll 25.

AUGER (from the O. Eng. nafu-går, nave-borer; the original initial n having been lost, as in "adder," through a confusion in the case of a preceding indefinite article), a tool for boring (q.v.) or drilling.

AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES, duke of Castiglione (1757-1816), marshal of France, was born in Paris in a humble station of life. At the age of seventeen he enlisted in the carabineers and thereafter came into note as a duellist, Having drawn his sword upon an officer who insulted him, he filed from France and roamed about in the Levant. He served in the Russian army against the Turks; but afterwards escaped into Prussia and enlisted in the guards. Tiring of this, he deserted with several others and reached the Saxon frontier. Service in the Neapolitan army and a sojourn in Portugal filled up the years 1788-1791; but the events of the French Revolution brought him back to his native land. He served with credit against the Vendeans and then joined the troops opposing the Spaniards in the south. There he rose rapidly, becoming general of division on the 23rd of December 1793. His division distinguished itself even more when transferred to the army of Italy; and under Bonaparte he was largely instrumental in gaining the battle of Millesimo and in taking the castle of Cosseria and the camp of Ceva. At the battle of Lodi (May 10, 1796), the turning movement of Augereau and his division helped to decide the day. But it was at Castiglione that he rendered the most signal services. Marbot describes him as encouraging even Bonaparte himself in the confused situation that prevailed before that battle, and, though this is exaggerated, there is no doubt that Augereau largely decided the fortunes of those critical days. Bonaparte thus summed up his military qualities: "Has plenty of character, courage, firmness, activity; is inured to war; is well liked by the soldiery; is fortunate in his operations." In 1797 Bonaparte sent him to Paris to encourage the Jacobinical Directors, and it was Augereau and the troops led by him that coerced moderates" in the councils and carried through the coup d'état of 18 Fructidor (4th of September) 1797. He was then sent to lead the united French forces in Germany; but peace

the "

speedily ensued; and he bore a grudge against the Directors and Bonaparte for their treatment of him at that time. He took no part in the coup d'état of Brumaire 1799, and did not distinguish himself in the Rhenish campaign which ensued. Nevertheless, owing to his final adhesion to Bonaparte's fortunes, he received a marshal's baton at the beginning of the Empire (May 19, 1804). In the campaign of 1805 he did good service around Constance and Bregenz, and at Jena (October 14, 1806) his corps distinguished itself. Early in 1807 he fell ill of a fever, and at the battle of Eylau he had to be supported on his horse, but directed the movements of his corps with his wonted bravery. His corps was almost annihilated and the marshal himself received a wound from which he never quite recovered. When transferred to Catalonia, he gained some successes but tarnished his name by cruelty. In the campaign of 1812 in Russia and in the Saxon campaign of 1813 his conduct was little more than mediocre. Before the battle of Leipzig (October 16, 18, 19, 1813), Napoleon reproached him with not being the Augereau of Castiglione; to which he replied, " Give me back the old soldiers of Italy, and I will show you that I am." In 1814 he had command of the army of Lyons, and his slackness exposed him to the charge of having come to an understanding with the Austrian invaders. Thereafter he served Louis XVIII., but, after reviling Napoleon, went over to him during the Hundred Days. The emperor repulsed him and charged him with being a traitor to France in 1814. Louis XVIII., when restored to the throne, deprived him of his military title and pension. He died at his estate of La Houssaye on the 12th of June 1816. In person he was tall and commanding, but his loud and vulgar behaviour frequently betrayed the soldier of fortune.

|

As authorities consult: Kock's Mémoires de Masséna; Bouvier, Bonaparte en Italie; Count A. F. Andréossi, La Campagne sur le Mein, 1800-1801: Baron A. Ducasse, Précis de la campagne de l'armée de Lyon en 1814; and the Memoirs of Marbot. (J. HL. R.) AUGHRIM, or AGHRIM, a small village in Co. Galway, Ireland, 4 m. W. by S. of Ballinasloe. It is rendered memorable by the decisive victory gained here on the 12th of July 1691 by the forces of William III. under General Ginkel, over those of James II. under the French general St Ruth, who fell in the fight. The Irish numbering 25,000, and strongly posted behind marshy ground, at first maintained a vigorous resistance; but Ginkel having penetrated their line of defence, and their general being struck down by a cannon ball at this critical moment, they were at length overcome and routed with terrible slaughter. The loss of the English did not exceed 700 killed and 1000 wounded; while the Irish, in their disastrous flight, lost about 7000 men, besides the whole material of the army. This defeat rendered the ad-| herents of James in Ireland incapable of further efforts, and was speedily followed by the complete submission of the country. AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR ÉMILE (1820-1889), French dramatist, was born at Valence, Drôme, on the 17th of September 1820. He was the grandson of Pigault Lebrun, and belonged to the well-to-do bourgeoisie in principles and in thought as well as by actual birth. He received a good education and studied for the bar. In 1844 he wrote a play in two acts and in verse, La Cigue, refused at the Théâtre Français, but produced with considerable success at the Odéon. This settled his career. Thenceforward, at fairly regular intervals, either alone or in collaboration with other writers-Jules Sandeau, EugèneMarie Labiche, Ed. Foussier-he produced plays which were in their way eventful. Le Fils de Giboyer (1862)-which was regarded as an attack on the clerical party in France, and was only brought out by the direct intervention of the emperorcaused some political excitement. His last comedy, Les Fourchambault, belongs to the year 1879. After that date he wrote no more, restrained by an honourable fear of producing inferior work. The Academy had long before, on the 31st of March 1857, elected him to be one of its members. He died in his house at Croissy on the 25th of October 1889. Such, in briefest outline, is the story of a life which Augier himself describes as "without incident"-a life in all senses honourable. Augier, with Dumas fils and Sardou, may be said to have held the

French stage during the Second Empire. The man respected himself and his art, and his art on its ethical side-for he did not disdain to be a teacher-has high qualities of rectitude and selfrestraint. Uprightness of mind and of heart, generous honesty, as Jules Lemaitre well said, constituted the very soul of all his dramatic work. L'Aventurière (1848), the first of Augier's important works, already shows a deviation from romantic models; and in the Mariage d'Olympe (1855) the courtesan is shown as she is, not glorified as in Dumas's Dame aux Camélias. In Gabrielle (1849) the husband, not the lover, is the sympathetic, poetic character. In the Lionnes pauvres (1858) the wife who sells her favours comes under the lash. Greed of gold, social demoralization, ultramontanism, lust of power, these are satirized in Les Effrontés (1861), Le Fils de Giboyer (1862), Contagion, first announced under the title of Le Baron d'Estrigaud (1866), Lions et renards (1869)—which, with Le Gendre de M. Poirier (1854), written in collaboration with Jules Sandeau, reach the high-water mark of Augier's art; in Philiberte (1853) he produced a graceful and delicate drawing-room comedy; and in Jean de Thommeray, acted in 1873 after the great reverses of 1870, the regenerating note of patriotism rings high and clear. His last two dramas, Madame Caverlet (1876) and Les Fourchambault (1879), are problem plays. But it would be unfair to suggest that Emile Augier was a preacher only. He was a moralist in the great sense, the sense in which the term can be applied to Molière and the great dramatists-a moralist because of his large and sane outlook on life. Nor does the interest of his dramas depend on elaborate plot. It springs from character and its evolution. His men and women move as personality, that mysterious factor, dictates. They are real, several of them typical. Augier's first drama, La Ciguë, belongs to a time (1844) when the romantic drama was on the wane; and his almost exclusively domestic range of subject scarcely lends itself to lyric outbursts of pure poetry. But his verse, if not that of a great poet, has excellent dramatic qualities, while the prose of his prose dramas is admirable for directness, alertness, sinew and a large and effective wit. Perhaps it wanted these qualities to enlist laughter on his side in such a war as he waged against false passion and false sentiment. (F. T. M.)

AUGITE, an important member of the pyroxene (q.v.) group of rock-forming minerals. The name (from auyn, lustre) has at various times been used in different senses; it is now applied to aluminous pyroxenes of the monoclinic series which are darkgreenish, brownish or black in colour. Like the other pyroxenes it is characterized crystallographically by its distinct cleavages parallel to the prism-faces (M), the angle between which is 87°. A typical crystal is represented in fig. 1, whilst fig. 2 shows a crystal twinned on the orthopinacoid (r'). Such crystals, of short prismatic habit and black in colour, are common as phenocrysts in many basalts, and are hence known basaltic augite ": when the containing rock weathers to a clayey material the augite is left as black isolated crystals, and such specimens, usually from Bohemia, are represented in all mineral collections. Though typical of basaltic rocks, augite is also an important constituent of many other kinds of igneous rocks, and a rock composed almost wholly of augite is known as augitite. It also occurs in metamorphic rocks; for example, in the crystalline limestones of the Fassathal in Tirol, where the variety known as fassaite is found as pistachio-green crystals resembling epidote in appearance.

100

as

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.

Chemically, augite resembles diopside in consisting mainly of CaMgSiO, but it contains in addition alumina and ferric iron as (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"')1⁄2 SiO; the acmite (NaFe"'Si2O1)