in Ceylon, under the equator. A community of goods and women is established in this republic, the principal magistrate of which is styled Sun, and is elected, after a strict examination in all kinds of science. Campanella has brought in so much of his own philosophical system, that we may presume that to have been the object of this romance. The Solars, he tells us 'abstained at first from flesh, because they thought it cruel to kill animals.' But afterwards considering that it would be equally cruel to kill plants, which are not less endowed with sensation, so that they must perish by famine, they understood that ignoble things were created for the use of nobler things, and now eat all things without scruple."-Hallam, Hist. Lit. PETER ARETINO, p. 288.-" Aretino in one of his letters says, 'So far it is plain that I am known to the Sophi, and to the Indians, and that the world is at this time filled with my renown. What more? The princes of the people being under a continual tribute, incessantly call me their scourge.' He was wont to boast that his libels had produced more good in the world, than all the sermons had ever done; in a letter written to him by Tornielli, we find the following passage. 'Do you not know that you have subdued more princes, pen in hand, than any one of the most powerful princes has with his arms? Whom does not your pen terrify? To whom is it not formidable? To whom also is it not agreeable? To whom is it not favourable? Your pen has, if I may so say, triumphed in a manner over all the princes of the world."" The epitaph on his tombstone runs thus:- A man, who never fail'd to satyrise, "Since Italian song came into the world, now six centuries since, the firstborn of modern intellect, she has never wearied of anxiously watching over the long and painful parturition of Italian nationality; and has, with holy perseverance, alimented the flickering flame of our religious hope. From the sublime aspirations of Alighieri, to the calm and solemn protests of Manzoni, Italian poetry has never despaired of the justice of God, and of the nation's future. She has ever spied out every generous thought, every hidden sacrifice of that despised multitude to whom Europe conspired to deny a name. She has gathered up and fostered every sign of returning energy in this our ancient Italy; and when it was intimated to her on all sides that she must die, she sang forth the glories of renewed vitality, and the virtues of hope. * What else but a collection of quarrelsome communes and feeble petty tyrants was our peninsula, when Dante evoked once more that ancient name of 'Italy,' proscribed by the popes, who wished us merged in the universality of Catholicism, and refused by the emperors, who have walled us up in the Gothic boundary of the Holy Germanic Empire.' Dante marked out the limits of 'la bella Italia-of the 'paese del si,' which extended itself 'dal piè dell' Alpe che serra Lamagna,' whence come down on us the Tedeschi lurchi!' He restored to the country its individuality, and lamenting its intestine discords, awaked in our father's breasts the consciousness of a common country. And those were the days when the Briton called the Norman and the Frank, stranger and robber; when Provençals, Gascons, Lorrainers, Burgundians, and Flemmings would have deemed it an insult to be called Frenchmen. But already hearts were beating in Italy at the loved name of Italy; and the national mind already rebelled against the barbarous latinity of the pontifical canons and the feodal institutes; and the vernacular language of the people sounded forth sublime hopes, generous indignation, and immortal loves. From the day when first we awoke to self-consciousness-to the consciousness of our miseries and our destinies-from that day shone forth invincible the great idea of Italian unity, incarnate in the language, in the poetry, and the traditions of the people; shone forth with a ray that never more either the arms of strangers or our own degradation can quench. With Dante and Petrarch commenced that brotherhood, which shall then only be complete when four hundred thousand men shall move under one banner, exhorted to do or die in that tongue that in such terrible accents spoke its wrath, ‘alla serva Italia, di dolore ostello ;'—when an Italian senate shall discuss Italian interests in the idiom that Cola di Rienzi spoke, that thundered from the pulpit of St. Marc in the mouth of Savanarola, that conveyed the severe and subtle reasoning of Machiavello. Glory to the tongue and to the poesy of Italy! Let all those who burn with love for their country think of the moment when first was awakened in their hearts the religion of patriotism, when first they felt their cheek glow with a patriot's indignation, and they will call to mind some monumental verse of Dante, some living melody of Petrarch-ever more true by far, and more impassioned, when he sings of the land 'che copre l' uno e l' altro parente,' than when he quibbles on his Laura and the laurel. Glory to the poesy of Italy! When all was still and dead, when he snatched the arms from each other's hands, when energy and courage were extinct, her voice still never failed; nor did her courage ever desert herher the vainly-derided guardian of a destiny, which fortune and violence may defer, but cannot prevent. ✶✶✶ And in these days, when we are compelled to own the wretched doubt, whether the misfortunes or the shame of Italy be the greater, who can point to any act that has better served our country's cause than the verses of Berchet, of Niccolini, of Leopardi, of Pelico? Our poets. have done that which to the vanquished is so difficult to do. They have given somewhat of dignity to our misfortunes-have commanded somewhat of respect for our distress. Europe, which had looked on with a mocking smile at the vain supplications of the commissioners of the Italian regency-at the almost bloodless discomfiture of the Neapolitans and Piedmontese-at the defeats of Nevi and Rimini-at the assassinations of Modena and Savoy-could not read without tears and indignation the story of the horrors of Spielberg." "The following works may be consulted on the subject of this note :-"Le Combalum Mundi," by Paul. L. Jacob, Paris, 1841. "Les Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles," by Le Roux de Lincy, Paris, 1841. "Le Moyen de Parvenir," by Charles Nodier, Paris, 1841. "Les Contes, on, Le Nouvelles Recreations et Joyeux Devis, de Bonaventure des Periers," Paris, 1841. "Propos Rustiques, Baliverneries, Contes, et Discoursd' Eutrapee," by J. Marie Guirhard, Paris, 1842. "Joyensetez, Faceties, et Folâtres Imaginacious de Caresmeprenant, Gauthier, Garguille, Guillot Gonju, &c." 22. vol. Paris. NOTE E, p. 364. REFORMATION, p. 295.-"Those students of history are much mistaken who imagine that Wickliffe was the first reformer, or that Luther was the founder of the Reformation. Resistance to Rome was as general and as uniform, though it was overpowered for many centuries, as resistance to arbitrary power, and political tyranny may be traced in every page of the history of England. Wickliffe followed in the train of the Hincmars and other bishops, whether of France, Milan, Ravenna, Constantinople, or elsewhere, who dauntlessly opposed the bishop of Rome; and Luther was but the voice of the mind of Europe, which had bowed down with indignation under the pontifical yoke. The iron sway of the Norman kings of England suppressed the passionate ardour of the English for the more free institutions of their Saxon ancestors. The establishment of our now common privileges, of taxation with representation, and the participation of the mass of the community in political power, is but the conclusion of the uniform demands of our ancestors, that their laws should be enacted with their own consent alone. The temporary suppression of the will of the people could not change the principles of liberty, nor prevent the eventual triumph of its advocates. So it was with the Reformation. The mass of events which is comprised under that name, some of which were most objectionable, was but the termination, in a large portion of Europe, of the continued and uniform resistance to the domination of the bishop of Rome. That resistance was suppressed, and burnt out in Spain, Italy, and many other places."-Ecclesiastical and Civil History Philosophically Considered, by the Rev. Geo. Townsend, 1847. THEODORE BEZA, p. 310.-This distinguished man was the author of that popular political song concerning the Scalado, which the people of Geneva sing on the day of the anniversary; and which Bayle says, "was a piece which left in their minds the most lively impression." MELCHIOR INCHOFER, p. 336.-In reference to the work of this author, Mr Hallam has the following remarks:-" Another Latin romance had some celebrity in its day, the Monarchia Solipsorum,' a satire on the Jesuits in the fictitious name of Lucius Cornelius Europeus. It has been ascribed to more than one person; the probable author is one Scotti, who had himself belonged to the order. This book did not seem to me in the least interesting; if it is so in any degree, it must be not as a mere fiction, but as a revelation of secrets." SPINOZA, p. 337.-The political ideas of Spinoza were essentially grounded on his ontological system. In matters of mind he considered intelligence and will as simple modifications of man's organic structure. In his views of morality, the notions of right and wrong are a nullity, inasmuch as they are inconceivable with a system where everything is absolutely identical, and only the necessary result of the energy of the sole or uniform substance of existThe same ideas carried out in reference to politics, in all their ramifications and dependencies, bring us at last to the notion of force; and this ence. again, when contrasted with his mental and moral theory, brings us to this, that justice relatively to each person can only be conceived as the measure of his individual power; since in order to conceive it under any other aspect, we must fall back upon an imaginary divine law and of free-will-two things most decidedly negatived by the whole tenor of his reasoning. Thus Spinoza arrives at the same result as Hobbes, only by a contrary route. The latter sets out from the diversity of human individuals as naturally hostile to each other; the Dutch philosopher starts from their absolute identity. The one excludes from his social hypothesis the idea of the infinite element-the principle of moral obligation; the other excludes the notion of finite beings, subjects of these moral obligations. Both land us in the politics of force; Hobbes assuming the character of an unmixed despotism-Spinoza that of pure anarchy. SIEUR DE SAINTE ALDEGONDE, was a distinguished statesman, and political writer of the Low Countries. His books and tracts on politics chiefly relate to the Spanish power in Belgium, and to the oppressions which its people endured during the sixteenth century. Aldegonde was the author of one of the most popular political songs of the day, and from which, Bayle tells us the republic gained great advantages. Another Belgian writer speaks of it in these terms. "The same person is said likewise to be the author of that famous song written in praise of Prince William of Nassau, addressed to the people of the Low Countries, oppressed by the tyranny of the Duke of Alva. This song is so excellent in its composition, and the rhymes and time so good, that it inflamed the minds of the populace with a prodigious love for the prince and the liberty of their country. In this point Sainte Aldegonde showed himself, as it were, another Tyrtæus, so often applauded by Plato; for, as this song contains an encomium of that brave prince, excitements to virtue, consolation for losses, and useful advices, it inspired the people with a strong resolution of defending the prince and the liberty of their country so that nothing can be thought to have been published more suitable to the circumstances of the times." Bayle adds to this: "We have one of the most important services from the hand of Aldegonde. A hundred good reasons might have been given against Spanish oppression, and it was of great importance to inculcate them upon the people, both in the pulpit and in books; but nothing could so much serve this purpose as a song; for it is a thing which imprints itself on the memory, and everybody, even the peasants and servants, repeat it daily with great satisfaction and joy." NOTE F, p. 409. THE JESUITS, p. 371.-"Let every one observe," (say the Constitutions of the Jesuits) that they who live under obedience ought to allow themselves to be borne and carried out by Divine Providence, acting in the person of their superiors; and they ought to permit themselves to be moved about as if they were a corpse, which suffers itself to be carried and swayed in any way you please; or, as if they were a staff in the hands of an old man, which allows him to use it wheresoever, and for whatsoever he likes.”—See “The Gospel in Advance of the Age," by the Rev. Robert Montgomery, 1849. FRANCIS VICTORIA, p. 383.-Francis Victoria, who began to teach at Valladolid in 1525, is said to have first expounded the doctrines of the schools in the language of the age of Leo X. Dominic Soto, a Dominical, the confessor of Charles V. and the oracle of the Council of Trent, to whom that assembly were indebted for much of the precision and even elegance for which their doctrinal decrees are not unjustly commended, dedicated his treatise on "Justice and Law" to Don Carlos, in terms of praise which, used by a writer who is said to have declined the high dignities of the church, lead us to hope that he was unacquainted with the brutish vices of that wretched prince. It is a concise and not inelegant compound of the scholastic ethics, which continued to be of considerable authority for more than a century. Both he and his master Victoria deserve to be had in everlasting remembrance for the part which they took on behalf of the natives of America and of Africa against the rapacity and cruelty of the Spaniards. Victoria pronounced war against the Americans for their vices or for their paganism to be unjust. Soto was the authority chiefly consulted by Charles V. on occasion of the conference held before him at Valladolid, in 1542, between Sepulveda, and Las Casas, the champion of the unhappy Americans; of which the result was a very imperfect edict of reformation in 1543, which, though it contained little more than a recognition of the principle of justice, almost excited a rebellion in Mexico. Sepulveda, a scholar and reasoner, advanced many maxims which were specious, and in themselves reasonable, but which practically tended to defeat even the scanty and almost illusive reform which ensued. Las Casas was a passionate missionary, whose zeal, kindled by the long and near contemplation of cruelty, prompted him to exaggerations of fact and argument; yet, with all its errors, it afforded the only hope of preserving the natives of America from extirpation. The opinions of Soto could not fail to be conformable to his excellent principle, that, "There can be no difference between christians and pagans, for the law of nations is equal to all nations." To Soto belongs the signal honour of being the first writer who condemned the African slave-trade. * * * As the work which condemned this man-stealing and slavery was the substance of lectures many years delivered at Salamanca, philosophy and religion appear, by the hand of their faithful minister, to have thus smitten the monsters in their earliest infancy. It is hard for any man of the present day to conceive the praise which is due to the excellent monks who courageously asserted the rights of those whom they never saw, against the prejudices of their order, the supposed interests of their religion, the ambition of their government, the avarice and pride of their countrymen, and the prevalent opinions of their times."-Sir James Mackintosh. 66 'It is very remarkable, though hitherto unobserved, that Aquinas anticipated those controversies respecting perfect disinterestednes in the religious affections which occupied the most illustrious members of his communion four hundred years after his death; and that he discussed the like question respecting the other affections of human nature with a fulness and clearness, an exactness of distinction, and a justness of determination, scarcely surrassed by the most acute of modern philosophers. It ought to be added, that |