Persia.

Mahomed

Khan.

Mahomed Khan, determined to go against him; but as he was previously proceeding to Ispahan to suppress a rebellion, he fell suddenly from his horse and expired on the spot.

62 Jaafar "At this period, Jaafar Khan, the eldest and only Khan assurviving son of Sadick Khan, was governor of Khum; serts his he deemed this a favourable opportunity to assert his pretensions to the go- pretensions to the government, and immediately marchvernment. ed with what few troops he had to Ispahan: soon after his arrival he was joined by the greater part of the malcontents, who were then in arms. In this situation he remained some time; but Akau Mahomed Khan coming down upon him with his army, he was obliged to risk his fate in a battle, and, being defeated, fled with the small remains of his troops, taking the road to Shirauz. Soon after finding himself strengthened by an increase 69 of his army, he determined to venture a second engageIs defeated ment with his opponent Akau Mahomed Khan; and by Aku for this purpose marched with his army towards Ispahan the two armies met near Yezdekhast, when a battle ensued, and Akau Mahomed Khan's superior fortune again prevailing, Jaafar Khan was defeated, and retired to Shirauz, which he quitted on the 25th of June 1787, and shortly after marched his army to the northward, but returned in October without having effected any thing." Such was the state of Persia in 1788. Mr Francklin, from whose excellent Observations on a Tour made in the years 1786-7 these particulars are mostly extracted, says that Jaafar Khan is the most likely, in case of success against his opponent, to restore the country to a happy and reputable state but it will require a long space of time to recover it from the calamities into which the different' revolutions have brought ita country, if an oriental metaphor may be allowed, once blooming as the garden of Eden, fair and flourishing to the eye;-now, sad reverse! despoiled and leafless by the cruel ravages of war, and desolating contention."

70

Air and elimate Persia.

66

:

As to the air and climate of this country, considering the great extent thereof, it cannot but be very different, according to the situation of its several parts; some being frozen with cold, whilst others are burnt with heat at the same time of the year. The air, wherever it is cold, is dry; but where it is extremely hot, it is sometimes moist. All along the coast of the Persian gulf, from west to east, to the very mouth of the river Indus, the heat for four months is so excessive, that even those who are born in the country, unable to bear it, are forced to quit their houses, and retire to the mountains; so that such as travel in these parts, at that season, find none in the villages, but wretched poor creatures, left there to watch the effects of the rich, at the expence of their own health. The extreme heat of the air, as it is unsupportable, so it makes it prodigiously unwholesome; strangers frequently falling sick there, and seldom escaping. The eastern provinces of Persia, from the river Indus to the borders of Tartary, are subject to great heats, though not quite so unwholesome as on the coasts of the Indian ocean and the Persian gulf; but in the northern provinces, on the coast of the Caspian sea, the heat is full as great, and, though attended with moisture, as unwholesome as on the coast before mentioned. From October to May, there is no country in the world more pleasant than this; but the people carry inde

Persia.

71

lible marks of the malign influence of their summers, looking all of them of a faint yellow, and having neither strength nor spirits; though, about the end of April, they abandon their houses, and retire to the mountains, which are 25 or 30 leagues from the sea. But this moistness in the air is only in these parts; the rest of Persia enjoys a dry air, the sky being perfectly serene, and hardly so much as a cloud seen to fly therein. Though it seldom rains, it does not follow that the heat admits of no mitigation: for in the night, notwithstanding there is not a cloud to be seen, and the sky is so clear, that the stars alone afford a light sufficient to travel by, a brisk wind springs up, which lasts until within an hour of the morning, and gives such a coolness to the air, that a man can bear a tolerable warm garment. The seasons in general, and particularly in the middle of this kingdom, happen thus: the winter, beginning in November, and lasting until March, is very sharp and rude, attended with frost and snow; which last descends in great flakes on the mountains, but never on the plains. The climate of Shirauz, the Climate of capital of Persia Proper, is represented by a traveller Shirauz. who lately visited it, as one of the most agreeable in the world, the extremes of heat and cold being seldom felt. "During the spring of the year the face of the country appears uncommonly beautiful. The flowers, of which they have a great variety, and of the brightest hues, the fragrant herbs, shrubs, and plants, the rose, the sweet basil, and the myrtle, all here contribute to refresh and perfume the natural mildness of the air. The nightingale of the garden (called by the Persians boolbul hezar dastaan), the goldfinch, and the linnet, by their melodious warblings at this delightful season of the year, serve to add to the satisfaction of the mind, and to inspire it with the most pleasing ideas. The beauties of nature are here depicted in their fullest extent; the natural historian and the botanist would here meet with ample scope for pursuing their favourite investigations. With such advantages, added to the salubrity of the air, how can it be wondered at that the inhabitants of Shirauz should so confidently assert the pre-eminence of their own city to any other in the world ?—or that such beauties should fail of calling forth the poetical exertions of a Hafiz, a Sadi, or a Jami? The mornings and evenings are cool, but the middle of the day is very pleasant. In summer the thermometer seldom rises above 73 in the day time, and at night it generally sinks as low as 62. The autumn is the worst season of the year, that being the time when the rains begin to fall, and during the autumnal months it is considered by the natives as the most unhealthy; colds, fluxes, and fevers being very general. In winter a vast deal of snow falls, and very thick, but ice is rarely to be found, except on the summits of the mountains, or towards Ispahan, and the more northern parts of Persia. One thing which is most to be esteemed in this country, and renders it preferable to any other part of the world, is their nights, which are always clear and bright: and the dew, that in most places is of so pernicious and dangerous a nature, is not of the least ill consequence here: there is none at all in summer, and in the other seasons it is of such a nature, that if the brightest scimitar should be exposed to it all the night, it would not receive the least rust; a circumstance I have myself experienced. This dryness in the air causes their buildings to last a great while, and is

undoubtedly

follow to give it a glossy whiteness, viz. by cleansing Persia. it, after it is beaten out of the husks, with a mixture of flour and salt. Corn ripens exceedingly in this country; so that in some parts they have a threefold crop in the year. The Persian bread is generally very thin,

Persia. undoubtedly one of the principal reasons that the celebrated ruins of Persepolis have endured for so many ages, and, comparatively speaking, in so perfect a state." The great dryness of the air exempts Persia from thunder and earthquakes. In the spring, indeed, there sometimes falls hail; and, as the harvest is then pretty far advanced, it does a great deal of mischief. The rainbow is seldom seen in this country, because there rise not vapours sufficient to form it; but in the night there are seen rays of light shooting through the firmament, and followed as it were by a train of smoke. The winds, however brisk, seldom swell into storms or tempests; but, on the other hand, they are sometimes poisonous and infectious on the shore of the Gulf, as all travellers agree. M. Tavernier says, that at Gombroon people often find themselves struck by a south wind, in such a manner, that they cry, "I burn!" and immediately fall down dead. M. le Brun tells us, that he was assured while he was there, that the weather was sometimes so excessively sultry as to melt the seals of letters. At this time the people go in their shirts, and are continually sprinkled with cold water; and some even lie several hours naked in the water. Among the inconveniences consequent from this malign disposition of the air, one of the most terrible is the engendering, in the arms and legs, a kind of long small worms, which cannot be extracted without great danger of breaking them; upon which a mortification ensues.

Soil.

72

73

Produce.

The soil of Persia is in general stony, sandy, barren, and everywhere so dry, that, if it be not watered, it produces nothing, not even grass; but, where they can turn the water into their plains or valleys, it is not unfruitful. There is a great difference in point of fertility in the different provinces of the empire; and those of Media, Iberia, Hyrcania, and Bactria, are now in a great measure what they were formerly, and surpass most of the others in their productions. All along the Persian gulf, the soil is still more barren, cattle less plenty, and every thing in a worse condition than anywhere else.

Though there is scarcely a province in Persia which does not produce wine, yet the wine of some provinces is much more esteemed than that of others; but Schiras, or, as it is written by Mr Francklin, Shirauz, wine is universally allowed to be the very best in Persia; insomuch, that it is a common proverb there, That to live happily, one must eat the bread of Yezd, and drink the wine of Schiras.

The grain most common in Persia is wheat; which is wonderfully fair and clean. As for barley, rice, and millet, they only make bread of them in some places, as in Courdestan, when their wheat bread is exhausted before the return of harvest. They do not cultivate in this country either oats or rye; except where the Armenians are settled, who make great use of the latter in Lent. Rice is the universal aliment of all sorts of people in Persia; for this reason they are extremely careful in its cultivation; for, after they have sown it in the same manner as other grain, they in three months time transplant it, root by root, into fields, which are well watered, otherwise it would never attain that perfection in which we find it there; since it is softer, sooner boiled, and more delicious, than the same grain in any other part of the world. Perhaps its taste is, in some measure, heightened by a practice which they

white, and good; and commonly cheap enough. Metals of all sorts have been found in Persia. Since the reign of Shah Abbas the Great, iron, copper, and lead, have been very common; but there are no gold or silver mines open at present; though, as Persia is a very mountainous country, such might very probably be found, if pains were taken to search them out. There are silver mines in Kerman and Mazanderan, and one not far from Spauhawn; but they cannot be worked for want of wood. Minerals are also found in Persia in abundance; especially sulphur, saltpetre, salt, and alum. Nothing is more common in this country than to meet with plains, sometimes 10 leagues in length, covered entirely with salt, and others with sulphur or alum. In some places salt is dug out of mines, and even used in building houses. Marble, freestone, and slate are found in great plenty about Hamadan. The marble is of four colours, viz. white, black, red and black, and white and black. Persia yields two sorts of petroleum or naphtha; namely, black and white. In the neighbourhood of Tauris they find azure; but it is not so good as that brought from Tartary. Among the most valuable productions of Persia are the precious stones called turquoises, of which there are several rocks or mines.

The horses of Persia are the most beautiful of the East, though they are not so much esteemed as those of Arabia; so great, however, is the demand for them, that the finest ones will fetch from 90l. to 45ol. sterling. They are higher than the English saddle horses; straight before, with a small head, legs wonderfully slender, and finely proportioned; they are mighty gentle, good travellers, very light and sprightly, and do good service till they are 18 or 20 years old. The great numbers of them sold into Turkey and the Indies, though none can be carried out of the kingdom without special license from the king, is what makes them so dear. Next to horses we may reckon mules, which are much esteemed here, and are very fine; and next to these we may justly place asses, of which they have in this country two sorts; the first bred in Persia, heavy and doltish, as asses in other countries are; the other originally of an Arabian breed, the most docile and' useful creature of its kind in the world. They are used wholly for the saddle; being remarkable for their easy manner of going, and are very sure-footed, carrying their beads lofty, and moving gracefully. Some of them are valued at 201. sterling. The mules here are also very fine; they pace well, never fall, and are seldom tired. The highest price of a mule is about 451. sterling. Camels are also numerous in Persia, and very serviceable; they call them kechty-krouch-konion, i. e. "the ships of the land;" because the inland trade is carried on by them as the foreign is by ships. Of these camels there are two sorts, the northern and southern: the latter, which is much the smaller, but swifter, will carry a load of about 700 weight, and trot as fast as a horse will gallop; the other will travel with a load of 1200 or 1300 weight; both are profitable to their masters, as costing little or nothing to keep. They X 2

travel

are

Persia. travel without halter or reins; grazing on the road from time to time, notwithstanding their load. They managed entirely by the voice; those who direct them making use of a kind of song, and the camel moving brisker, or at its ordinary pace, as they keep a quicker or slower time. The camels shed their hair so clean in the spring, that they look like scalded swine: but then they are pitched over, to keep the flies from stinging them. The camel's hair is the most profitable fleece of all the tame beasts: fine stuffs are made of it; and in Europe, hats, with a mixture of a little beaver.

As beef is little eaten in Persia, their oxen are generally employed in ploughing, and other sorts of labour. Hogs are nowhere bred in Persia, if we except a province or two on the borders of the Caspian sea. Sheep and deer are very common throughout all Per

sia.

Of wild beasts, the number is not great in that country, because there are few forests; but where there are any, as in Hyrcania, now called Tabristan, abundance of lions, bears, tygers, leopards, porcupines, wild boars, and wolves are to be found; but the last are not so numerous as any of the other species.

some

There are but few insects in this country; which may be ascribed to the dryness of the climate. In so provinces, however, there is an infinite number of locusts or grashoppers, which fly about in such clouds as to darken the air. In certain parts of the Persian dominions they have large black scorpions, so venomous, that such as are stung by them die in a few hours. In others they have lizards frightfully ugly, which are an ell long, and as thick as a large toad, their skins being as hard and tough as that of the sea-dog; they are said to attack and kill men sometimes; but that may be doubted. The southern provinces are infested with gnats; some with long legs, like those we call midges; and some white, and as small as fleas, which make no buzzing, but sting suddenly, and so smartly that the sting is like the prick of a needle. Among the reptiles is a long square worm, called by the inhabitants hazar-pey, i. e. "thousand feet," because its whole body is covered with feet; it runs prodigiously fast; and its bite is dangerous, and even mortal if it gets into the

ear.

There are in Persia all the several sorts of fowls which we have in Europe, but not in such great plenty; excepting, however, wild and tame pigeons, of which vast numbers are kept all over the kingdom, chiefly on account of their dung; which is the best manure for melons. It is a great diversion among the lower sort of people in town or country to catch pigeons, though it be forbidden for this purpose they have pigeons so taught, that flying in one flock, they surround such wild ones as they find in the field, and bring them back with them to their masters. The partridges of this country are the largest and finest in the world, being generally of the size of our fowls. Geese, ducks, cranes, herons, and many other sorts of water fowl, are common here; as are likewise nightingales, which are heard all the year, but chiefly in the spring; martlets, which learn whatever words are taught them; and a bird called noura, which chatters incessantly, and repeats whatever it hears. Of birds of a larger size, the most remarkable is the pelican, by the Persians called tacab,

canus, OR

i. e. "water-carrier ;" and also misc, i. e. "sheep," be- Persia cause it is as large as one of these animals. There are in Persia various birds of prey. Some of their falcons * See Peliare the largest and finest in the world; the people take NITHOLOGY great pains to teach them to fly at game; the Persian Index. lords being great lovers of falconry, and the king having generally 800 of this sort of birds, each of which has a person to attend it.

seas.

74

There is perhaps no country in the world which, ge- Mountains, nerally speaking, is more mountainous than Persia; rivers, and but many of them yield neither springs nor metals, and but few of them are shaded with trees. It is true some of the chief of them are situated on the frontiers, and serve as a kind of natural ramparts, or bulwarks, to this vast empire. Among the latter are the mountains of Caucasus and Ararat, sometimes called the mountains of Daghestan, which fill all the space between the Euxine and Caspian seas: those called Taurus, and the several branches thereof, run through Persia from Natolia to India, and fill all the middle of the country.

As to rivers, except the Araxes, which rises in the mountains of Armenia, and falls into the Kur or Cyrus before it reaches the Caspian sea, there is not one navigable stream in this country. The Oxus divides Persia on the north-east from Usbeck Tartary. The Indus also may now be reckoned among the rivers of Persia, as the provinces lying to the west of that river are now in possession of that crown: this river is said to run a course of more than 1000 miles, and overflows all the low grounds in April, May, and June.

The seas on the south of Persia are, the gulf of Persia or Bassora, the gulf of Ormus, and the Indian ocean. The only sea on the north is the Caspian or Hyrcanian sea; which is more properly a lake, having no communication with any other sea. These seas, together with the lakes and rivers, supply Persia with plenty of fish. The Caspian sea contains very fine fish on one side; and the Persian gulf on the other is believed to have more fish than any other sea in the world. On the coasts of this gulf is taken a sort of fish, for which they have no particular name; its flesh is of a red colour, very delicious, and some of them weigh 200 or 300 pounds. The river fish are chiefly barbels; but far from being good. Those of the lakes are carps and shads. In the river at Spauhawn are a great number of crabs, which crawl up the trees, and live night and day under the leaves, whence they are taken; and are esteemed very delicious food.

75

In his voyage from Gombroon up the Persian gulf, Islands, &c. Mr Ives makes mention of several islands, named Kisme, in the PerPolloar, Kyes, Inderabie, Shittewar, and Busheel. Some sian gulf. of these were quite barren; on others there were a few trees and bushes, with little fishing towns, and a few small vessels lying along shore. The date trees were thinly scattered among the hills; but though a small portion of green might here and there be discovered, yet such was the barrenness of these islands in general, that it was for some time a matter of surprise how sheep and goats could possibly subsist upon them. On closer examination, however, it was found, that the soil produced a kind of small leaved juicy mallows, on which these animals principally feed. The Persian coast, as they sailed along, afforded a most romantic prospect, appearing at first to be one continued rock, rent and torn

asunder

asunder by earthquakes; but it was afterwards discovered, that some part of it was only sand hardened by the rains and sun.

Narban Point terminates in a long and low piece of land, which runs off into the gulf from the foot of the Persian hills. Between this point and the main land is a channel, in which a ship of 900 tons burden might easily ride. The Portuguese had formerly a settlement here, the remains of which are still to be seen. A large river empties itself into the sea at this place; and Mr Ives observes, that "Providence seems here to have allotted a spot of ground amidst unhospitable rocks and deserts, capable of affording the kind production of vegetables for man and beast." The adjacent country is subject to the Arabs.

Through all the Persian gulf, Mr Ives remarks that the spring water on the islands is much better than that on the continent; and the water nearest the sea on the islands has greatly the advantage over that which is found in the middle parts. This holds good, however, only in those parts which are near the sea; for about 12 miles up the country, both on the Persian and Arabian side of the gulf, the water is very good. At the island called Bareen or Baharen, divers go down to the bottom of the sea, at certain known depths, and come up again with their vessels filled with fresh water. This fresh water is found in holes or little natural wells, some fathoms below the surface of the sea. The Arabs bave certain marks on the island to teach them where to dive for the fresh water. Mr Ives was assured by an Arabian merchant, that he himself had discovered a spring upon the shore, by which one of these wells is served. He put into this spring a bit of heavy stick; and in two or three days an Arabian diver brought it to him again from the bottom of one of these holes.

The English and other nations, trade with the Persians several ways, particularly by the gulf of Ormus at Gombroon, and by the way of Turkey. A trade also was not many years since opened by the English with Persia through Russia and the Caspian sea; but that is now discontinued, having been prohibited by the court of Russia, who were apprehensive that the English would teach the Persians to build ships, and dispute the navigation of the Caspain sea with them. The principal commodities and manufactures of Persia are raw and wrought silks, mohair camblets, carpets, leather; for which, and some others, the European merchants enchange chiefly woollen manufactures; but the trade is carried on altogether in European shipping, the Persians have scarce any ships of their own, and the Russians the sole navigation of the Caspian sea. There is not a richer or more profitable trade in the world, than that which is carried on between Gombroon and Surat in the East Indies; and the English East India Company frequently let out their ships to transport the merchandise of the Banians and Armenians from Persia to India. The shah or sovereign of Persia, is the chief merchant; and he usually employs his Armenian subjects to traffic for him in every part of the world. The king's agents must have the refusal of all merchandise, before his subjects are permitted to trade. It is computed that Persia produces yearly upwards of 22,000 bales of silk, chiefly in the provinces of Ghilan and Mazanderan, each bale weighing 263 pounds. Vast quantities of Persian silk used to be imported into Europe, especially by the

Dutch, English, and Russians, before the civil wars began. The goods exported from Persia to India are, tobacco, all sorts of fruits, pickled and preserved, especially dates, marmalade, wines, distilled waters, horses, Persian feathers, and Turkey leather of all sorts and colours, a great quantity whereof is also exported to Muscovy and other European countries. The exports to Turkey are, tobacco, galls, thread, goats hair, stuffs, mats, box-work, and many other things. As there are no posts in the east, and trading by commission with the use of bills of exchange, is little known, traffic must proceed in a very awkward heavy manner, in comparison of that of Europe.

Persia.

77

The most current money of Persia are the abassees, Money, worth about Is. 4d. sterling; they are of the finest silver. An abassee is worth two mahmoudes; a mahmoude, two shahees; and a shahee, ten single or five double casbeghes; these last pieces are of brass, the others of silver; for gold is not current in trade. The shahees are not very common; but mahmoudes and casbeghes are current everywhere, Horses, camels, houses, &c. are generally sold by the toman, which is an imaginary coin, worth 200 shahees, or 50 abassees; and they usually reckon their estates that Such a one, they say, is worth so many tomans, as we say pounds in England.

way.

78

Persia is an absolute monarchy, the lives and estates Governof the people being entirely at the disposal of their ment. prince. The king has no council established, but is advised by such ministers as are most in favour; and the resolutions taken among the women of the haram frequently defeat the best laid designs. The crown is hereditary, excluding only the females. The sons of a daughter are allowed to inherit. The laws of Persia exclude the blind from the throne; which is the reason that the reigning prince usually orders the eyes of all the males of the royal family, of whom he has any jealousy, to be put out. The king has generally a great many wives, which it would be death for any one besides the eunuchs, who have the superintendance of them, to look at, or even see by accident; wherefore, when he travels, notice is given to all men to quit the road, nay their very houses, and to retire to a great distance.

He

The prime minister is called attemaet doulet, which signifies the director of the empire, and also vizir azem, or the great supporter of the empire; as he alone almost sustains the whole weight of the administration. This minister's chief study is to please his master, to sccure to himself an ascendant over his mind, and to avoid whatever may give him any uneasiness or umbrage. With this view, he never fails to flatter him, to extol him above all the princes upon earth, and to throw a thick veil over every thing that might help to open his eyes, or discover to him the weakness of the state. even takes particular care to keep the king in utter ignorance; to hide from him, or at least to soften, all unwelcome news; and, above all, to exalt immoderately every the least advantage he obtains over his enemies. As he takes these methods, which indeed are and must be taken, more or less, by the ministers of every despotic prince, to secure the favour and confidence of his master; so the inferior officers and governors of provinces are obliged to employ all the means in their power to secure the prime minister's, they depending no less upon him than he does upon the king.

There

There is a gradation of despotism and slavery, down from the prime minister to the lowest retainer to the court, or dependent on the government. Children are sometimes in Persia required by the king to cut off the ears and nose, and even to cut the throats of their parents; and these orders cannot be objected to, without endangering their own lives. Indeed their baseness and mercenariness are such, that they will perpetrate such atrocious deeds without the least scruple or difficulty, when they have a promise or expectation of possessing their posts. The prime ministers, notwithstanding the precarious footing on which they stand, in effect of their abilities or good fortune, sometimes continue in their em ployments during life, or, if removed are only banished to some city, where they are allowed to spend the remainder of their days in a private station.

Next to the prime minister are the nadir, or grandmaster of the househould; the mehter, or groom of the chambers, who is always a white eunuch; the mirakbor bashe, or master of the horse; the mir-shikar bashe, or great huntsman and falconer; the divanbeggi, or chief justice, to whom there lies an appeal from the degora, or the lieutenant of police, in every town; the vacka nuviez, or recorder of events, or first secretary of state; the muslau-she-elmenaleck, or master of the accounts and finances of the kingdom; the numes humbashes, or the king's chief physicians; the shickada-fibashe, or inspector of the palace, and regulator of rank at court; and the khans, or governors of provinces, under whom are other governors, called soltans, appointed also by the king. Civil matters are all determined by the cazi, and ecclesiastical ones (particularly divorces) by the sheick-elselleum, or head of the faith; an officer answering to the mufti among the Turks; under him are the sheick-elselom, and cadi, who decide in all matters of religion, and make all contracts, testaments, and other public deeds, being appointed by the king in all the principal towns; and next to these are the pichnamas, or directors of the prayers; and the moullahs, or doctors of the law. Justice is carried on in Persia in a very summary manner; the sentence, whatever it may be, being always put into execution. on the spot. Theft is generally punished with the loss of nose and ears; robbing on the road, by ripping up the belly of the criminal, in which situation he is exposed upon a gibbet in one of the most public parts of the city, and there left until he expires in torment.

There is no nobility in Persia, or any respect shown to a man on account of his family, except to those who are of the blood of their great prophet or patriarchs; but every man is esteemed according to the post he possesses; and when he is dismissed, he loses his honour, and he is no longer distinguished from the vulgar.

With respect to the forces of Persia, their two bodies, called the Kortshies and Goulans, that serve on horseback, are well kept and paid, and may amount, the former to about 22,000, and the latter to about 18,000. The Kortsbies are descended from an ancient but foreign race; and the Goulans are either Georgian renegadoes or slaves, or the children of slaves of all nations. The infantry, called Tangtchies, are picked out from among the most robust and vigorous of the peasants, and compose a body of 40,000 or 50,000. The Persians have few fortified towns, and had no ships of war, till Kouli Khan built a royal navy, and among them had a man of

war of 80 guns; but since the death of that usurper, we hear no more of their fleet.

The arms of the king of Persia are a lion couchant, looking at the sun as he rises over his back. His usual title is Shaw or Patshaw, the "disposer of kingdoms.” They add also to the king's titles those of sultan, and chan or cham, which is the title of the Tartar sovereigns. To acts of state the Persian monarch does not subscribe his name; but the grant runs in this manner, viz. This act, or edict, is given by him whom the universe obeys.

The ancient Persians are known to have been exceedingly voluptuous and effeminate. After the conquest of the empire by Alexander, the Greck discipline and martial spirit being in part communicated to them, they became much more formidable; and hence the Parthians were found to be a match not only for the Syro-Macedonian princes, but even for the Romans. Of their manners we know little or nothing, but that to their valour and military skill they joined in a surprising degree all the luxury and dissipation of the ancient Persians.

The modern Persians, like the Turks, plundering all the adjacent nations for beauties to breed by, are men of a good stature, shape, and complexion; but the Gaures, or ancient Persians, are homely, ill-shaped, and clumsy, with a rough skin, and olive complexions. In some provinces, not only the complexions but the constitutions of the inhabitants, suffer greatly by the extreme heat and unwholesomeness of the air. The Persian women, too, are generally handsome and well-shaped, but much inferior to those of Georgia and Circassia. The men wear large turbans on their heads, some of them very rich, interwoven with gold and silver; a vest, girt with a sash; and over it a loose garment, something shorter; with sandals, or slippers, on their feet. When they ride, which they do every day, if it be but to a house in the same town, they wear pliant boots of yellow leather; the furniture of their horses is extremely rich, and the stirrups generally of silver: whether on horseback or on foot, they wear a broadsword and a dagger in their sash. The dress of the women does not differ much from that of the men; only their vests are longer, and they wear stiffened caps on their heads, and their hair down.

With respect to outward behaviour, says an intelligent traveller, "The Persians are certainly the Parisians of the East. Whilst a rude and insolent demeanour peculiarly marks the character of the Turkish nation towards foreigners and Christians, the behaviour of the Persians would, on the contrary, do honour to the most civilized nations: they are kind, courteous, civil, and obliging, to all strangers, without being guided by those religious prejudices so very prevalent in every other Mahometan nation; they are fond of inquiring after the manners and customs of Europe, and in return very readily afford any information in respect to their own country. The practice of hospitality is with them so grand a point, that a man thinks himself highly honoured if you will enter his house and partake of what the family affords; whereas, going out of a house without smoking a calean, or taking any other refreshment, is deemed in Persia a high affront."

Their usual drink is water and sherbet, as in other Mahometan countries, wine being prohibited; but of all Mahometan nations they pay the least regard to this prohibition. Many of them drink wine publicly, and al

Persia.

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