Parthia. pitched battles; in consequence of which he lost all the countries conquered by his father, and was reduced within the limits of the ancient Parthian kingdom. Antiochus did not, however, long enjoy his good fortune; for his army, on account of their number, amounting to no fewer than 400,000, being obliged to separate to such distances as prevented them, in case of any sudden attack, from joining together, the inhabitants, whom they had most cruelly oppressed, taking advantage of this separation, conspired with the Parthians to destroy them. This was accordingly executed; and the vast army of Antiochus, with the monarch himself, were slaughtered in one day, scarcely a single person escaping to carry the news to Syria. Phrahates, elated with this success, proposed to invade Syria; but in the mean time, happening to quarrel with the Scythians, he was by them cut off with his whole. army, succeeded by his uncle Artabanus. 6 Alliance and was The new king enjoyed his dignity but a very short tim, being, a few days after his accession, killed in another battle with the Scythians. He was succeeded by Pacorus I. who entered into an alliance with the Romans; and he by Phrahates III. This monarch concluded took under his protection Tigranes the son of Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia, gave him his daughter in marriage, and invaded the kingdom with a design to place the son on the throne of Armenia; but on the approach of Pompey he thought proper to retire, and soon after solemnly renewed the treaty with the Romans. with the Romans. 7 Crassus resolves on a the Parthians. Phrahates was murdered by his children Mithridates and Orodes; and soon after the former was put to death by his brother, who thus became sole master of the Parthian empire. In his reign happened the memorable war with the Romans under Crassus. This was occasioned not by any breach of treaty on the side of the Parthians, but through the shameful avarice of war with Crassus. The whole Roman empire at that time had been divided between Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus; and by virtue of that partition, the eastern provinces had fallen to the lot of Crassus. No sooner was he invested with this dignity, than he resolved to carry the war into Parthia, in order to enrich himself with the spoils of that people, who were then looked upon to be very wealthy. Some of the tribunes opposed him, as the Parthians had religiously observed the treaty; but Crassus having, by the assistance of Pompey, carried every thing before him, left Rome in the year 55 B. C. and pursued his march to Brundusium, where he immediately embarked his troops, though the wind blew very high; and after a difficult passage, where he lost many of his ships, he reached the ports of Galatia. 8 Plunders From Galatia Crassus hastened to Syria, and passing the temple through Judea, plundered the temple at Jerusalem in his at Jerusa leni. way. He then marched with as great expedition as he could to the river Euphrates, which he crossed on a bridge of boats; and, entering the Parthian dominions, began hostilities. As the enemy had not expected an invasion, they were quite unprepared for resistance; and therefore Crassus overran all Mesopotamia; and if he had taken advantage of the consternation which the Parthians were in, might have also reduced Babylonia. But instead of this, early in the autumn, he repassed the Euphrates, leaving only 7000 foot and 1000 horse to garrison the places he had reduced; and putting his army into winter quarters in Syria, gave himself wholly up to his favourite passion of amassing money. Early in the spring, the Roman general drew his forces out of their winter quarters, in order to pursue the war with vigour; but, during the winter, Orodes had collected a very numerous army, and was well prepared to oppose him. Before he entered upon action, however, the Parthian monarch sent ambassadors to Crassus, in order to expostulate with him on his injustice in attacking an ally of the Roman empire; but Crassus, without attending to what they said, only returned for answer, that "they should have his answer at Seleucia." dish Orodes, fiuding that a war was unavoidable, divided his army into two bodies. One he commanded in person, and marched toward Armenia, in order to oppose the king of that country, who had raised a considerable army to assist the Romans. The other be sent into Mesopotamia, under the command of Surena or Surenas, a most experienced general, by whose conduct all the cities which Crassus had reduced were quickly retaken. On this some Roman soldiers who made their escape, and fled to the camp of Crassus, His filled the mind of his army with terror at the accounts ed. of the number, power, and strength, of the enemy. They told their fellow soldiers, that the Parthians were very numerous, brave, and well disciplined; that it was impossible to overtake them when they fled, or escape them when they pursued; that their defensive weapons were proof against the Roman darts, and their offensive weapons so sharp, that no buckler could resist them, &c. Crassus looked upon all this only as the effect of cowardice: but the common soldiers, and even many of the chief officers, were so disheartened, that Cassius, the same who afterwards conspired against Cæsar, and most of the legionary tribunes, advised Crassus to suspend his march, and consider better of the enterprise before he proceeded farther in it. But Crassus obstinately persisted in his former resolution, being encouraged by the arrival of Artabazus king of Armenia, who brought with him 6000 horse, and promised to send 10,000 cuirassiers and 30,000 foot, whenever he should stand in need of them. At the same time, he advised him by no means to march his army through the plains of Mesopotamia, but to take his route over the mountains of Armenia. He told him, that as Armenia was a mountainous country, the enemy's cavalry, in which their main strength consisted, would there be entirely useless; and besides, his army would there be plentifully supplied with all manner of necessaries: whereas, if he marched by the way of Mesopotamia, he would be perpetually harassed by the Parthian horse, and frequently be obliged to lead his army through sandy deserts, where he would be distressed for want of water and all other provisions. This salutary advice, however, was rejected, and Crassus entered Mesopotamia with an army of about 40,000 men, The Romans had no sooner crossed the Euphrates, than Cassius advised his general to advance to some of those towns in which the garrisons yet remained, in or der to halt and refresh his troops: or if he did not choose to follow this advice, he said that his best way would be to march along the banks of the Euphrates to Seleu 10 commanded in the centre, his son in the left wing, and Parthin Cassius in the right. Parthia. cia; as by this method he would prevent the Parthians from surrounding him, at the same time he would be plentifully supplied with provisions from his ships. Of Betrayed this advice Crassus seemed to approve; but was disby Abgarus king of suaded by Abgarus king of Edessa, whom the Romans took for an ally, but who was in reality a traitor sent by Surenas to bring about the destruction of the Roman army. Edessa. Under the conduct of this faithless guide, the Romans entered a vast green plain divided by many rivulets. Their march proved very easy through this fine country; but the farther they advanced, the worse the roads became, insomuch that they were at last obliged to climb up rocky mountains, which brought them to a dry and sandy plain, where they could neither find food to satisfy their hunger, nor water to quench their thirst. Abgarus then began to be suspected by the tribunes and other officers, who earnestly entreated Crassus not to follow him any longer, but to retreat to the mountains; at the same time an express arrived from Artabazus, acquainting the Roman general that Orodes had invaded his dominions with a great army, and that he was obliged to keep his troops at home, in order to defend his own dominions. The same messenger advised Crassus in his master's name to avoid by all means the barren plains, where his army would certainly perish with hunger and fatigue, and by all means to approach Armenia, that they might join their forces against the common enemy. But all was to no purpose; Crassus, instead of hearkening either to the advice of the king or his own officers, first flew into a violent passion with the messengers of Artabazus, and then told his troops, that they were not to expect the delights of Campania in the most remote parts of the world. Thus they continued their march for some days across a desert, the very sight of which was sufficient to throw them into the utmost despair: for they could not perceive, either near them or at a distance, the least tree, plant, or brook, not so much as a hill, or a single blade of grass; nothing was to be seen all around them but huge heaps of burning sand. The Romans had scarcely got through this desert, when word was brought them by their scouts, that a numerous army of Parthians was advancing full march to attack them; for Abgarus, under pretence of going out on parties, had often conferred with Surenas, and concerted measures with him for destroying the Roman army. Upon this advice, which occasioned great confusion in the camp, the Romans being quite exhausted, and tired out with their long and troublesome march, Crassus drew up his men in battalia, following at first the advice of Cassius, who was for extending the infantry as wide as possible, that they might take up the more ground, and by that means prevent the enemy from surrounding them: but Abgarus assuring the proconsul that the Parthian forces were not so numerous as was represented, he changed this disposition, and believing only the man who betrayed him, drew up his troops in a square, which faced every way, and had on each side 12 cohorts in front. Near each cohort he placed a troop of horse to support them, that they might charge with the greater security and boldness. Thus the whole army looked more like one phalanx than troops drawn up in manipuli, with spaces between them, after the Roman manner. The general himself In this order they advanced to the banks of a small river called the Balissus, the sight of which was very pleasing to the soldiers, who were much harassed with drought and excessive heat. Most of the officers were for encamping on the banks of this river, or rather rivulet, to give the troops time to refresh themselves after the fatigues of so long and painful a march; and, in the mean time to procure certain intelligence of the number and disposition of the Parthian army; but Crassus, suffering himself to be hurried on by the inconsiderate ardour of his son, and the horse he commanded, only allowed the legions to take a meal standing; and before this could be done by all, he ordered them to advance, not slowly, and halting now and then, after the Roman manner, but as fast as they could move, till they came in sight of the enemy, who, contrary to their expectation, did not appear either so numerous or so terrible as they had been represented; but this was a stratagem of Surenas, who had concealed his men in convenient places, ordering them to cover their arms, lest their brightness should betray them, and, starting up at the first signal, to attack the enemy on all sides. The stra-The batt'o tagem had the desired effect; for Surenas no sooner gave of Cartha the signal, than the Parthians, rising as it were out of the ground, with dreadful cries, and a 'most frightful noise, advanced against the Romans, who were greatly surprised and dismayed at the sight; and much more so, when the Parthians, throwing off the covering of their arms, appeared in shining cuirasses, and helmets of burnished steel, finely mounted on horses covered all over with armour of the same metal. At their head appeared young Surenas in a rich dress, who was the first who charged the enemy, endeavouring, with his pikemen, to break through the first ranks of the Roman army; but finding it too close and impenetrable, the cohorts supporting each other, he fell back, and retired in a seeming confusion: but the Romans were much surprised when they saw themselves suddenly surrounded on all sides, and galled with continual showers of arrows. Crassus ordered his light-armed foot and archers to advance, and charge the enemy; but they were soon repulsed, and forced to cover themselves behind the heavyarmed foot. Then the Parthian horse, advanced near the Romans, discharged showers of arrows upon them, every one of which did execution, the legionaries being drawn up in such close order, that it was impossible for the enemy to miss their aim. As their arrows were of an extraordinary weight, and discharged with incredible force and impetuosity, nothing was proof against them. The two wings advanced in good order to repulse them, but to no effect; for the Parthians shot their arrows with as great dexterity when their backs were turned, as when they faced the enemy; so that the Romans, whether they kept their ground, or pursued the flying enemy, were equally annoyed with their fatal ar to Parthia. them anew, they began to lose courage, and loudly complain of their general for suffering them thus to stand still, and serve only as a butt to the enemy's arrows, which, they well saw, would not be exhausted till they were all killed to a man. Hereupon Crassus ordered his son to advance, at all adventures, and attack the enemy with 1300 horse, 500 archers, and 8 cohorts. But the Parthians no sooner saw this choice body (for it was the flower of the army) marching up against them, than they wheeled about, and betook themselves, according to their custom to flight. Hereupon young Crassus, crying out as loud as he could, They fly before us, pushed on full speed after them, not doubting but he should gain a complete victory; but when he was at a great distance from the main body of the Roman army, he perceived his mistake; for those who before had fled, facing about, charged him with incredible fury. Young Crassus ordered his troops to halt, hoping that the enemy, upon seeing their small number, would not be afraid to come to a close fight but herein he was likewise greatly disappointed; for the Parthians, contenting themselves to oppose his front with their heavy-armed horse, surrounded him on all sides; and, keeping at a distance, discharged incessant showers of arrows upon the unfortunate Romans, thus surrounded and pent up. The Parthian army, in wheeling about, raised so thick a dust, that the Romans could scarce see one another, much less the enemy: nevertheless, they found themselves wounded with arrows, though they could not perceive whence they came. a short time the place where they stood was all strown with dead bodies. T2 Extreme the Ro mans. : In Some of the unhappy Romans finding their entrails distress of torn, and many overcome by the exquisite torments they suffered, rolled themselves in the sand with the arrows in their bodies, and expired in that manner. Others endeavouring to tear out by force the bearded points of the arrows, only made the wounds the larger, and increased their pain. Most of them died in this manner; and those who outlived their companions were no more in a condition to act; for when young Crassus exhorted them to march up to the enemy, some showed him their wounded bodies, others their hands nailed to their bucklers, and some their feet pierced through and pinned to the ground; so that it was equally impossible for them either to attack the enemy or defend themselves. The young commander, therefore, leaving his infantry to the sooner joined, than the Parthians invested them anew, making a most dreadful havock of them with their arrows. In this desperate condition, Crassus, spying a rising ground at a small distance, led the remains of his detachment thither, with a design to defend himself in the best manner he could, till succours should be sent him from his father. The Parthians pursued him; and having surrounded him in his new post, continued showering arrows upon his men, till most of them were either killed or disabled, without being able to make use of their arms, or give the enemy proofs of their valour. Young Crassus had two Greeks with him, who had settled in the city of Carrhæ. These, touched with compassion, at seeing so brave a man reduced to such straits, pressed him to retire with them to the neighbouring city of Ischnes, which had declared for the Romans; but the young Roman rejected their proposal with indignation, telling them, that he would rather die a thousand times than abandon so many valiant men, who sacrificed their lives for his sake. Having returned this answer to his two Greek friends, he embraced and dismissed them, giving them leave to retire and shift for themselves in the best manner they could. As for himself, having now lost all hopes of being relieved, and seeing most of his men and friends killed round him, he gave way to his grief; and, not The d being able to make use of his arm, which was shot of you through with a large barbed arrow, he presented his Crassu side to one of his attendants, and ordered him to put an end to his unhappy life. His example was followed by Censorius a senator, by Megabacchus an experienced and brave officer, and by most of the nobility who served under him. Five hundred common soldiers were taken prisoners, and the rest cut in pieces. The Parthians, having thus cut off or taken the whole detachment commanded by young Crassus, marched without delay against his father, who, upon the first advice that the enemy fled before his son, and were closely pursued by him, had taken heart, the more because those who had remained to make head against him seemed to abate much of their ardour, the greatest part of them having marched with the rest against his son. Wherefore, having encouraged his troops, he had retired to a small hill in his rear, to wait there till his son returned from the pursuit. Young Crassus had despatched frequent expresses to his father, to acquaint him with the danger he was in; but they had fallen into the enemy's hands, and been by them put to the sword: only the last, who had escaped with great difficulty, arrived safe, and informed him that his son was lost if he did not send him an immediate and powerful reinforcement. This news threw Crassus into the utmost consternation; a thousand affecting thoughts rose in his mind, and disturbed his reason to such a degree, that he scarce knew what he was doing. However, the desire he had of saving his son, and so many brave Romans who were under his command, made him immediately decamp, and march to their assistance; but he was not gone far before he was met by the Parthians, who, with loud shouts, and songs of victory, gave, at a distance, the unhappy father notice of his misfortune. They had cut off young Crassus's head, and, having fixed it on the point of a lance, were advancing full speed to fall on the father. As they drew Parthia. drew near, Crassus was struck with that dismal and af- 14 Distress of This was a melancholy night for the Romans. Cras sus kept himself concealed from the soldiery, lying not in the general's tent, but in the open air, and on the bare ground, with his head wrapped up in his paludamentum or military cloak; and was, in that forlorn condition, says Plutarch, a great example to the vulgar, of the instability of fortune; to the wise, a still greater of the pernicious effects of avarice, temerity, and ambi. tion: Octavius, one of his lieutenants, and Cassius, approached him, and endeavoured to raise him up and console him but, seeing him quite sunk under the weight of his affliction, and deaf to all comfort, they summoned a council of war, composed of all the chief officers; wherein it was unanimously resolved, that they should decamp before break of day, and retire, without sound of trumpet, to the neighbouring city of Carrhæ, which was held by a Roman garrison. Agreeable to this resolution, they began their march as soon as the Agreeable to council broke up; which produced dreadful outcries among the sick and wounded, who, perceiving that they were to be abandoned to the mercy of the enemy, filled the camp with their complaints and lamentations: but their cries and tears, though very affecting, did not stop the march of the others, which, indeed, was very slow, to give the stragglers time to come up. only 300 light horse, under the command of one There were Egnatius, who pursued their march without stopping.. These arriving at Carrhæ about midnight, Egnatius, calling to the centinels on the walls, desired them to acquaint Coponius, the governor of the place, that Crassus had fought a great battle with the Parthians; and, without saying a word more, or letting him know who he was, continued his march with all possible expedition to the bridge of Zeugma; which he passed, and by that means saved his troops, but was much blamed for thus abandoning his general. The message which he sent to Coponius was of some temporary service to Crassus. For that commander, 5 ] PAR wisely conjecturing, from the manner in which the Parthia. unknown person had given him the intelligence, that some misfortune had befallen Crassus, immediately oring out, met Crassus, and conducted him and his army dered his garrison to stand to their arms; and, marchinto the city: for the Parthians, though informed of his flight, did not offer to pursue him, observing therein the superstitious custom which obtained among them it was day, they entered the Roman camp, and having and the Persians, not to fight in the night; but when put all the wounded, to the number of 4000, to the sword, dispersed their cavalry all over the plain, in pursuit of the fugitives. One of Crassus's lieutenants, named Vargunteius, having separated in the night from the main body of the army, with four cohorts, missed approach he withdrew to a neighbouring hill, where he his way, and was overtaken by the enemy; at whose defended himself, with great valour, till all his men were killed, except 20, who made their way through the enemy, sword in hand, and got safe to Carrhæ : but Vargunteius himself lost his life on the occasion. 15 to confer In the mean time. Surenas, not knowing whether Surenas guide had led them into those bogs with no good de- gained Parthia. gained the mountains called by Plutarch and Appian Sinnaci, and there intrenched himself before break of day. As for Crassus, he was still entangled in the marshes, when Surenas, at the rising of the sun, overtook him, and invested him with his cavalry. The proconsul had with him four cohorts, and a small body of horse; and with these he gained, in spite of all opposition, the summit of another hill within 12 furlongs of Octavius; who seeing the danger that threatened his general, flew to his assistance, first with a small number of his men, but was soon followed by all the rest, who, being ashamed of their cowardice, quitted their post, though very safe, and charging the Parthians with great fury, disengaged Crassus, and obliged the enemy to abandon the hill. Upon the retreat of the enemy, they formed themselves into a hollow square; and placing Crassus in the middle, made a kind of rampart round him with their bucklers, resolutely protesting, that none of the enemy's ar rows should touch their general's body, till they were all killed fighting in his defence. Surenas, loth to let so fine a prey escape, surrounded the hill, as if he designed to make a new attack: but, finding his Parthians very backward, and not doubting but the Romans, when night came on, would pursue their march, and get out of his reach, he had recourse again to artifice; and declared before some prisoners, whom he soon after set at liberty, that he was inclined to treat with the proconsul of a peace; and that it was better to come to a reconciliation with Rome, than to sow the seeds of an eternal war, by shedding the blood of one of her generals. Agreeable to this declaration, Surenas, as soon as the prisoners were released, advanced towards the hill where the Romans were posted, attended only by some of his officers, and, with his bow unbent, and open arms, invited Crassus to an interview. So sudden a change seemed very suspicious to the proconsul; who therefore declined the interview, till he was forced, by his own soldiers, to intrust his life with an enemy whose treachery they had all experienced; for the legionaries flocking round him, not only abused him in an outrageous manner, but even menaced him if he did not accept of the proposals made him by the Parthian general. Seeing, therefore, that his troops were ready to mutiny, he began to advance, without arms or guards, towards the enemy, after having called the gods and his officers to witness the violence his troops offered him; and intreated all who were present, but especially Octavius and Petronius, two of the chief commanders, for the honour of Rome their common mother, not to mention, after his death, the shameful behaviour of the Roman legion aries. Octavius and Petronius could not resolve to let him go alone; but attended him down the hill, as did likewise some legionaries, keeping at a distance. Crassus was met at the foot of the hill by two Greeks who, dismounting from their horses, saluted him with great respect; and desired him in the Greek tongue, to send some of his attendants, who might satisfy him that Surenas, and those who were with him, came without arms. Hereupon Crassus sent two brothers, of the Roscian family; but Surenas having caused them to be seized, advanced to the foot of the hill, mounted on a fine horse, and attended by the chief officers of his army. Crassus, who waited for the return of his two messengers, was surprised to see himself prevented by Surenas in person, 3 when he least expected it. The Parthian general, perceiving, as he approached Crassus, that he was on foot, cried out, in a seeming surprise, "What do I see? a Roman general on foot, and we on horseback! Let a horse be brought for him immediately." "You need not be surprised (replied Crassus): we are come only to an interview, each after the custom of his country." "Very well (answered Surenas), there shall be henceforth a lasting peace between King Orodes and the people of Rome: but we must sign the articles of it on the banks of the Euphrates; for you Romans do not always remember your conventions." Crassus would have sent for a horse; but a very stately one with a golden bit, and richly caparisoned, was brought to him by a Parthian; which Surenas presenting to him, "Accept this horse from my hands (said he), which I give you in the name of my master King Orodes." He had scarce uttered these words, when some of the king's officers, taking Crassus by the middle, set him upon the horse, which they began to whip with great violence before them in order to make him quicken his pace. Octavius, offended at this insult, took the horse by the bridle; Petronius and the few Romans who were present, seconded him, and flocking all round Crassus, stopped his horse. The Parthians endeavoured to repulse them, and clear the way for the proconsul; whereupon they began to justle and push one another with great tumult and disorder. At last, Octavius, drawing his sword, killed one of the king's grooms; but, at the same time, another coming behind Octavius, with one blow laid him dead at his feet. Both parties fought with great resolution, the Parthians striving to carry off Crassus, and the Romans to rescue him out of their hands. In this scuffle most of the Romans who came to the conference were Part 16 Crassus killed; and amongst the rest Crassus himself; but whe- killed. ther by a Roman or a Parthian is uncertain. Upon his death, the rest of the army either surrender. ed to the enemy, or dispersing in the night, were pursued, and put to the sword. The Romans lost in this campaign at least 30,000 men; of which 20,000 were killed, and 10,000 taken prisoners. When the battle of Carrhæ was fought, King Orodes was in Armenia, where he had made peace with Artabazus. While the two kings were solemnizing their new alliance with expensive and public feasts, Styllaces or Syllaces, a Parthian officer, whom Surenas had sent with the news of his late victory, and the head of Crassus as a proof it, arrived in the capital of Armenia. The transports of joy which Orodes felt at this sight, and these news, are not to be expressed; and the lords of both kingdoms, who attended their sovereigns, raised loud and repeated shouts of joy. Syllaces was ordered to give a more particular and distinct account of that memorable action; which when he had done, Orodes commanded melted gold to be poured into Crassus's mouth; reproaching him thereby with avarice, which had been always his predominant passion. 17 Surenas did not long enjoy the pleasure of his victory; Surenas put for Orodes, jealous of his power and authority among to death by the Parthians, soon after caused him to be put to death. Orodes. Pacorus, the king's favourite son was put at the head of the army; and, agreeably to his father's directions, invaded Syria: but he was driven out from thence with great loss by Cicero and Cassius, the only general who survived the defeat of Crassus. After this we find no mention |