Explanation: The lowest plan represents the basement (sous-sol), the middle plan the first floor, and the uppermost the second story. The basement: A A, B B, rooms for receiving and preserving the cadavers, and A' A' rooms for cleansing them; CC, ice vaults (glacière); D, elevator; F, apparatus for heating water; HH, room for injections and large anatomical preparations; K K K K, dissecting rooms; N N N N, apartments of janitor. First story: A A A A A, dissecting rooms; BB, hall for anatomical work; CCCC, halls for examination; DDDDD, microscopic laboratories; EE, hall for demonstrations in operativo medicine; F F F, hall for the use of the students of the Academy of Beaux-arts. Second story: A, A, A, museum for dried specimens; B, auditorium: C C C C, laboratories of chemistry; D D, room for physical operations (cabinet de physique); EEEE, hall so arranged that a low temperature may be maintained in order to preserve work not capable of immediate completion; FF, room of the director; G G, laboratory, and H HI, room of the professor of anatomy; I, library; KKK, apartments of the first prosector, and L L of second prosector.

LABORATORIES OF PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY,

The pathological anatomy that Laënnec, Cruveilhier, Rokitanski, and others had elevated to the rank of a science, bas taken a considerable development since the microscope has been applied to the study of organic alterations. This new way bas been opened and entered upon with great éclat by the celebrated author of Cellular Pathology, Professor Virchow, and by many other eminent workers. Their discoveries bring to medicine unceasingly a rich harvest of useful material. The microscopic examination of the organs is indispensable as a complement to chemical study. In the French hospitals it is the physician who has attended the defunct patient that performs the autopsy. The autopsy is differently made in Germany. It is neither the professor of the clinic nor his assistants that makes the autopsy; it is made by the professor of pathological anatomy, and he performs his duty in the presence of the students with the confidence and the authority of an expert and of one filling a high position. The organs affected by disease are placed aside for examination by the students, who note their exterior appearance. Subsequently, in another place, microscopic examinations are made. But it is necessary not to confound these demonstrations with the methodic course of pathological anatomy, which is independent and during which the professor exhibits matters furnished by the daily autopsies. The Pathological Institute of Vienna will serve to illustrate the fourth form of the institute of the German University, which had no like in America until long after the idea had become commonplace in Europe. Perhaps in America even to-day such an institute would be called a college, if not a "university."

But Professor Virchow himself has spoken upon the topic of pathological anatomy for the World's Fair exhibit of the German universities at Chicago. The history of pathological anatomy, he says, was until a very recent date, closely connected with that of anatomy. Indeed the pathological anatomy of the domestic animals served as a model upon which to build that of man. But it was long before the retarding grip of tradition conld be loosened so the worth of the autopsy might be recognized. "I had the especial good fortune," he says, "to be the first to teach officially this science. In 1819 I occupied the first professorial chair in pathological anatomy in Germany. From Würzburg I was called to Berlin, and there it happened that pathological anatomy was first separated from the chair of anatomy proper and became an independent branch of investigation, and then throughout Germany. But let us briefly examine," he continues, "the character and extent of the practical principles that must guide us in this science."

1. The autopsy must become a regular part of the law of the land (Krankendienst). The law of every country must not permit, as far as possible, the body of a person dying in a hospital to be taken away from science. To make a beginning in this line will be very difficult, but with patience and perseverance it will be eventually recognized by the people that the autopsy is necessary to enable the physician to conquer disease. It must become a prejudice (Sitte) that a corpse shall be dissected like the Egyptians had the custom of disemboweling their dead and draining the brain out through the nose to preserve it as a mummy. When again it shall become customary, as of old, to cremate the body, then the custom (sitte) to have the body dissected will easily become general.

2. The pathological dissection must be done according to exact rules. It is selfevident that the dissection must make clear its peculiarities as far as they are recognizable, and that it should be adopted to show the purpose (Gang) of the section and the relations to other parts of the body, as more particularly set forth in The Technique of the Section as Conducted in the Morgue of the Charity Hospital, Virchow, 1893, fourth edition.

3. Just as the technique of pathological anatomy is different from the technique of the "anatomical theater," so are different instruments required, especially to the end of quicker completion of the section. For instance, larger knives are required.

4. The next consideration is the making of good accounts (Protokolle) of the trans

actions and their collection in a library provided for them in the building. A good protocol is a circumstantial and time-consuming work, and it happens in consequence, even in well-conducted institutions that they are not made. Nevertheless the existence of these archives is the basis for a sure utilization of the results of the autopsy in medical science.

5. To this library of records should be joined a museum of pathological specimens. No institution should be without this. It has the double end to provide the required material for objective study in a logical order and at the same time to preserve an evidence of important facts. But this matter is not capable of being expressed in a general way.

Professor Wurtz's work has mainly been used in the foregoing descriptions. He saw what he describes, and studied calmly what he saw. His account, though not "up to date," as the saying is, is accurate, and therefore contains all the essentials for some time to come. But in the meantime the physiological investigations concerning the "nervous agency," which he mentions, have given rise to a new form of institute or laboratory, called the Laboratory of Psychology. In 1878 Professor Wundt opened the first laboratory of this kind at Leipzig. As we shall follow Professor Binet in noticing this new creation, it will be a French institution-the one of which M. Binet himself is associate director-that will be introduced.

There exist two kinds of psychology—that called experimental and that called morbid. The last studies hypnotism, hysteria, mental diseases, and the various troubles of the sensory and motor nerves. The latter kind does not enter into the work of the Paris laboratory of experimental psychology, which deals with healthy individuals. The laboratory in Paris was created in 1889, and attached to the École Pratique des Hautes Etudes, or rather to the section of the natural sciences of that university, and a director and four other professors were appointed. It is now installed at the new Sorbonne, occupying four rooms: (1) a large room for demonstrations in common; (2) an office for the director, where are stored the apparatus, etc., of a delicate character; the room also serves for special research; (3) a room which contains the library, a glass case for the glassware, etc.; the room is used for macroscopic and microscopic research on the nervous system; (4) the fourth room is exclusively reserved for the use of the master of conferences; but a small room opening into this room is used for a dark chamber in experiments upon vision. There are also two other small rooms for chemical work, etc. "In America laboratories of this kind are extremely numerous," says M. Binet, "but we lack details concerning their organization. Those of which we positively know the existence are situated in New York, Philadelphia, Worcester, New Haven, Providence, Ithaca, Medissina (?), Chompen (?), Harvard (Cambridge), Chicago, Toronto. In Europe the following cities possess laboratories: Leipzig, Göttingen, Bonn, Berlin, Copenhagen, Gronengen (Holland), Geneva, Liege, Brussells, Stockholm, Oxford, and Cambridge." As there are so many of these institutions in America, more than half of the whole number, it may be of interest to state just what M. Binet thinks the "psychologic method" is as compared with physiological psychology. It will be observed that M. Binet is a keen logician, and is rather incredulous as to the recording of ideas about a mind without a mind. As the following matter is taken from his "Introduction à la psychologie expérimentale," there can be no impropriety in introducing the Baconian aphorism that the mind requires instruments and aids in investigating nature, since M. Binet points out that the instruments and aids are not mind.

There has been some disagreement as to the lines of demarkation between psychology and its neighbor-between, in fact, psychology, properly so-called, and the physiology of the nervous system. But our studies have a characteristic which, if understood, will prevent confusion. Everybody knows what the word introspection means. Its synonyms are self-consciousness, consciousness (sens intime, sens interne,

conscience, etc.). It is the act by which we perceive directly that which is going on within us-our thoughts, memories, and emotions. This introspection, it is possible to say, is the base of psychology, and it characterizes psychology so precisely that every study which is made by introspection must be called psychological, and every study which is made by any other method belongs to another science. We (MM. Binet, Philippe, Courtier, and Henri, the professors of the Paris Laboratory) beg to insist upon this point, for the late studies in physiological psychology have sometimes lost sight of the fact.

It is proper to explain, continues M. Binet and his colleagues, that we are taking the word introspection in the largest sense. Frequently it is used in the sense of withdrawing within one's self for the purpose of reflecting and analyzing the contents of the mind or, as Berkeley puts it in plain English, of the thing I call myself. But this is only one of many cases, and not the best, where introspection may be used. When many persons are asked to observe an indicated object; when many persons are interrogated upon the impressions made upon their consciousness, and these answers are collated; when these persons are submitted to regulated tests, and then relate the impressions they received; finally, when, without letting them know of the fact, their gestures, play of facial expression, their words, judgments, and conduct are observed, and the emotions and passions which are ruling them are inferred from these outward signs-in all these cases, and many others which we could add to the list, we arrive either directly or indirectly, with certainty or with chances of error, to read the mental state of a person and to represent them to ourselves as if we had ourselves experienced them. Yet, to study phenomena in this way is to use introspection and consequently psychology.

M. Charles Richet, director of the Revue Scientific, has put forth a statement which may be of interest in this connection. Under the rather vague name of "fonction cérébrale,” he speaks of the mind as having a "caractère psychologique." He says the other organic apparatuses, such as the liver, the heart, ovaries, and muscles, have functions which are material and reducible to exterior-like phenomena, whether chemical, dynamic, or morphological; but the brain apparatus (le cerveau) has a function which certainly does not exist in the tissues, for it is the seat of consciousness and intelligence (il a la conscience et l'intelligence). This conscience and this intelligence widely separates (créent un fosse profond) the psychology of the brain and that of the other organs. So wide is this separation that the knowledge (la connaissance) of the soul, of the me, is the object of a science-the science of psychology-that it is frequently attempted to separate from physiology properly so called. But, notwithstanding every effort of the pyschologues, psychology is mixed up with the physiology of the brain apparatus (cerveau), although the methods of psychology differ in many respects from the methods of physiology. But, although the brain (cerveau) is the seat of the consciousness, it possesses also other apparatuses which have simple physiological functions through which, like the other organs, it produces chemical and dynamical phenomena.

INSTITUTES FOR THE STUDY OF MICROBES CALLED BACTERIA.

When Leeuwenhoeck saw that the growth called tartar contained a "great number of little animalcula which acted in a remarkable manner," he contented himself with naming their different forms A, B, C, etc. Since then many efforts have been made to classify these "little animals," but the syllogism in natural science is a very uncertain friend in classification unless fortified by a thorough knowledge of properties rather than a collection of names. "By their works shall ye know them" is particularly appropriate to the microbe.

1Stated on the authority of Dr. H. Dubief, Etudes microbologiques. In this section the compilations of Drs. Trouessart, Arloing, and Dubief have been mostly used, also the works of M. Duclaux, chief of the Pasteur Institute at Paris.