chants of at least six years' experience, who have received a seminary education and who have the right to one-year volunteer military service), will be admitted. In view of the great need of commercial teachers, this plan meets with great approval.'

THE WORLD'S LARGEST LIBRARIES.

United States Consul Eugene Germain, at Zurich, Switzerland, writes under date of August 31, 1897:

The largest and best collection of books in the world is to be found in the National Library of France. This collection contains 2,600,000 bound volumes and about 1,300,000 copies of pamphlets; in other words, it contains about double the books at the British Museum.

The building, which is now known as the "Bibliotèque Nationale," was at one time the home of Cardinal Mazarin. To Charles V belongs the honor of having been its founder.

The Imperial Library of Russia, established by Peter the Great in 1714, is the third among the world's great libraries. It contains about 1,200,000 volumes and about 26,000 manuscripts. It attained a place in the front rank of European libraries by the acquisition of the celebrated Zalusky collection; Count Zalusky had collected about 260,000 volumes and 10,000 MSS. In the suppression of the Jesuit order in Russia the collection of books in their possession was taken in charge by Prince Italinsky, and among other libraries the prince transferred the Zalusky collection from the Jesuit college at Warsaw to St. Petersburg. The most important of the manuscripts in this library is the famous "Codex Sinaiticus" of the Greek Bible, brought from the convent of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai by Professor Tischendorf in 1859.

The fourth largest library is the Royal Library of Berlin, with 850,000 volumes. It was started in 1661 by the great elector, Frederick William. The Royal Library of Munich contains 540,000 books and 400,000 pamphlets. This library is especially rich in incunabula, and occupies the finest library building in Europe. The fifth in rank is the United States Library, with 680,000 volumes; Strassburg, with 645,000, is sixth; Boston, with 597,152 volumes, is seventh. The eighth is the Imperial Library in Vienna, containing 570,000 volumes and about 20,000 MSS. The Royal Library at Copenhagen is the largest Scandinavian library, founded in the sixteenth century, and is particularly strong in Icelandic literature. Among its most valuable MSS. is the collection of Tycho Brahe, the Danish astronomer. The most valuable library in Italy is in the Vatican, but the largest, containing 400,000 volumes, is in Florence.

Chief among the collections open to the public in Belgium is the Royal Library, containing no less than 405,000 books and 30,000 MSS.

THE UNIVERSITY OF BONN.

Report of Vice and Acting Consul W. H. MADDEN, of Cologne, Germany.

The Frederick William University, at Bonn on the Rhine, is frequented by about 2,000 students. If Berlin, Munich, and Leipzig, with about 9,000, 4,000, and 3,000 students, respectively, rank as the largest among German universities, Bonn is entitled to the first place among the smaller ones.

It is a healthy town of 43,000 inhabitants, much in favor as a residence by learned men and artists, retired merchants and manufacturers. The neighborhood of the Seven Mountains offers opportunities for delightful excursions in summer, it being possible to reach in one afternoon the beautiful spots, Godesberg,

1 See also Chapter VI, Vol. 1, of this Annual Report.

Koenigswinter, and Rolandseck. Well-to-do students can even reside in Gedesberg or Koenigswinter.

The expenses of living are, according to American ideas, relatively small: A student engages a room or rooms for the half year, paying monthly. The price of one room is from 15 to 25 marks ($3.57 to $5.95) a month; for two, 25 to 40 marks ($9.52), with attendance. Breakfast, dinner, and supper come to about 75 marks. Thus for 100 marks ($23.80) board and lodging are obtainable, good enough to satisfy the demands of even fastidious young men. The average amount for board and lodging would not exceed 75 marks.

The expenses of the university course are likewise moderate. The matriculation fees come to 18 marks ($1.28); those for private lectures four times a week to about 20 marks ($4.75). The fees for medical lectures are usually higher. Besides, each student pays 8 marks ($1.90), Auditorengeld, and contributes 2 marks to an academical sick fund-an admirable institution, providing in case of illness, admission into a hospital, medical attendance and medicine gratis.

German students are only allowed to matriculate on producing a certificate proving that they have passed the final examination of a public classical school (gymnasium) or a modern high school (realschule). This examination is for youths from 18 to 20 who have attended a high school for nine years. Young men, likewise, who possess only the certificate entitling them to one year's military service, are admitted for four terms of six months each. They are from 15 to 17 years of age, having attended a high school for six years and learned either French and English or Latin and Greek. As regards foreigners, the rule is that they can matriculate and be entered in any faculty, provided they prove that they possess an education equivalent to the above. Thus their admission is made easy and a cordial welcome extended to them. Should a young man desire, however, to go up for an examination he will do well to furnish himself with a certificate that he has attended a university in his own country.

It is well known that to German students almost entire freedom is accorded both in their private life and in their studies, the university exercising only the mildest supervision over the latter. They do not, however, often abuse their liberty, having been trained for nine years to hard work both at home and at school. Nevertheless, during the first or even the second half year there is not generally much work done, a sort of tacit right to a year of freedom being conceded to them, and when grown accustomed to their independence they renew their former habits of diligence.

The Bonn University consists of five faculties: Divinity, Protestant and Catholic; law, medicine, and philosophy. A Catholic theological faculty is found elsewhere only in Breslau and Tübingen. The Episcopal authorities are permitted to exercise a certain influence in this faculty.

The philosophical faculty embraces all subjects not comprehended in the first four faculties- history, philosophy, philology, classical romance and German, mathematics, chemistry, science, zoology, all being comprised. The increasing importance of the mathematical and natural science departments has led in other universities to a division into two sections-history and philology in the one, mathematics and natural science in the other. In two universities a complete separation has already taken place, there being a natural science faculty as well as a philological faculty. Bonn, however, still, outwardly, retains the old union. In the winter 1896-97 the number of students in the different faculties was as follows

and at the Agricultural College at Poppelsdorf, in connection with the university, there were 40 students. The teaching staff consisted at that time of 71 ordinary professors, 29 extraordinary, 43 private lecturers (privat-docenten), 4 tutors (lectoren), and at the Agricultural College above mentioned 11 ordinary and 13 extraordinary professors. In order to comprehend the position of the different university teachers it is necessary to take a glance at the general constitutions of German universities.

The University of Bonn, although only founded in 1818, has in the main the same constitution as all the other German universities, which in many points retain the medieval system. They were originally self-governing corporations possessed of considerable privileges. The teaching staff was recruited from the students, the ablest of the latter starting lectures on their own account and gathering audiences. The corporation granted the right to do this by bestowing academical degrees. The title of licentiate has survived only in the theological faculty, but that of doctor in all the faculties, it representing the sole direct advantage which the university has full power to confer.

The value of the doctor's degree varies in the different universities and in the several faculties in proportion to the difficulty in obtaining it. The faculties in Bonn all require of the candidates a written dissertation involving scientific research, as well as a viva voce examination.

In jurisprudence the highest proficiency is exacted and a degree only rarely conferred, while that in philosophy is but a little less difficult of attainment. The act of receiving the degree itself has become a mere ceremony, in which various ancient usages are retained. Even the final disputation, in which the candidate defends his theses, is devoid of any significance. The granting of a degree, which, by the way, is attended with considerable expense to the graduate, is a private affair of the university. The State respects the title and protects it from misuse, but recognizes no rights or claims upon itself on the part of its possessor. The sole privilege that it confers is the right of giving lectures in a university, nevertheless it is indispensable to a learned career.

The graduate commences his university career as private lecturer (privat-docent), but receives no salary. He announces his lectures. As, however, attendance at any particular lecture is not compulsory, his success depends entirely upon his power of attracting students. Should he be successful, he is appointed extraordinary professor by the faculty or called in that capacity to another university, the minister of instruction and of ecclesiastical and medical affairs confirming the election. The salary of extraordinary professors is small and the position not one of much importance, the power and influence of the university being chiefly centered in the ordinary professors.

The "lectoren" are teachers of modern languages, and mostly foreigners, and can become professors should they devote themselves to philosophy and literature. The assistants, young men who have taken their doctor's degree and are mostly preparing for a university career, give their services to the medical staff in the clinical hospitals and to the directors of the various laboratories.

There exists a good deal of rivalry between the different universities in their efforts to attract specially capable men by urging the ministers to offer higher salaries, and thus induce them to exchange one sphere of work for another. This rivalry is not confined to Prussian universities, all the German, also Austrian, Swiss, and even Russian universities taking part in it, the result of which is much going to and fro in the learned world, for it may happen that a professor is to be found at one time in Dorpat, shortly afterwards in Strassburg, and finally in Berlin.

The ordinary professors of each faculty elect annually one of their number to be dean, and the whole body of these professors elect the rector, who likewise fills

his office for a year.

The deans form the chief medium of communication between the undergraduates and the university, the rector representing the university. A committee of professors, the senate, assist him in council. It is evident that the Prussian universities possess a large measure of independence in internal affairs-freedom in teaching is jealously guarded. On the other hand, the State has its own rights, viz, the whole administration of the finances, and by merely granting or refusing funds exerts great influence. Each university has a curator, who is the representative of the minister, and exercises the governmental control. The post is a difficult one, calling for much tact, and is filled by an ex-minister or an official of that department. The present curator in Bonn, von Rothenburg, was formerly under secretary. Efforts have been made to extend the influence of the State, but hitherto without much success. The professors can neither be removed nor made to retire except of their own free will. On the other hand, the State has in the course of time obtained entire control of the examinations. State examinations are held in each faculty, and it is these which open the door to an official career and to medical and legal practice. The State appoints in each province an examining body, which is annually renewed, consisting, indeed, as a rule, of the ordinary professors of the respective universities. But the whole institution is formally dissociated from the university, and the goal of their studies is for the many the State examination, for the few the degree of doctor. In this way also the State wields a far greater influence upon university life than would appear on a superficial view, for a man naturally selects the lectures of his future examiner. As regards the professors of to-day, the writer is unfortunately not in a position to give his individual opinion, except upon those of the philosophical faculty, and, as is well known, it is difficult to judge from the experience of others. But in general it may be said that, as a rule, only men of exceptional ability are called to Bonn, which is a rich place, and having great attractions is selected by many in preference to a larger university. Many eminent names figure in its history. We may mention that in Protestant theology the liberal as well as the orthodox school is represented. But when recently complaints were made by the orthodox the Government took measures to strengthen the positive element in the faculty. In physiology Pflueger ranks as one of the first authorities. Professor Schede, who succeeded Trendelnburg, the surgeon, now at Leipzig, is thought well of. Fritsch, the gynææcologist, and Koester, the pathologist, were mentioned as distinguished scientists. In the philosophical faculty the classics are brilliantly represented. The names Boecheler, Usener, and Svescheke, the archæologist, are renowned far beyond Germany. The chief representative of the German language is Willmann, who, at the instance of the minister, Puttkammer, has introduced a reformed German orthography, which, however, does not yet find general acceptance. In other branches also the philosophical faculty is rich in learned men. Foerster, an authority in the philology of the romance languages, worthily fills the chair of Frederick Diez, the founder of that science.

In the department of natural science we have to mourn the loss of Clausius, the first to propound the mechanical theory of heat; of Hertz, to whom we owe the theory of the undulating motion of electricity, and of whose famous experiments the whole world is still talking, and of Kekulé, the great chemist-all dead within a short time of each other. Whether their successors will be reckoned among the illustrious remains to be seen. In any case it is evident that in the choice of its professors Bonn upholds the best traditions.

The academical year is divided into two terms, the summer term lasting nominally from April 15 to August 15, and the winter term from October 15 to March 15. In reality, owing to a late commencement and early close one must deduct at least one month, the academical year being thus reduced to eight months.

The lectures are private and public. The private ones, for which fees are

charged, are mostly of a severely scientific character; the public ones are free and of a more popular character, thus attracting students from other faculties. The private lectures-collegium is the students' expression-take up more time and are termed "lectures of four hours," when given four times a week for one hour. The honorarium is fixed and received by the respective privat docent or private lecturer. A movement is now on foot, however, to abolish the fees, and the Government is treating with the university respecting another method of regulating the emoluments of the professors. American onlookers should, above all, bear in mind that the official salaries are often small according to our ideas, but that this is partly compensated by pensions and provisions for widows and orphans. Besides the lectures in which only the professor speaks, there are in all departments opportunities for practical training. In law, theology, and philosophy there are so-called seminaries where intercourse is freer between professor and student. They read together, and give and receive a stimulus to individual research. Nevertheless the seminaries are kept somewhat apart from the general life of the university, the number of members being limited, and it being considered an advantage to be admitted. They are, in fact, institutions with special financial administration, special buildings, and usually possessing a valuable -library. Of these seminaries there are in Bonn not fewer than ten. Corresponding to them in the natural science department there are institutes in the medical clinical hospitals. Of the former there are eleven, of the latter eight, most of them located in fine new buildings and supplied with excellent museums. There are institutes for anatomy, physiology, hygiene, chemistry; clinical hospitals for diseases of the skin, the eye, the ear, the internal organs, for women, and for mental Of course, these are not all in one building, but are dispersed over the town, some being as far away as Poppelsdorf.

cases.

We must not omit to mention the university library, one of the most important in the country; the botanical gardens, the observatory, and various museums. We thus see here in a small space, developed in the course of a century, an institution which, were it to be suddenly called into existence, would require an outlay of millions, but whose organization can only be understood as an historical growth.

REPORT ON PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN THE REPUBLIC OF URUGUAY.

Report of Consul ALBERT W. SWALM, of Montevideo, Uruguay.

The annual report of public instruction for the Republic of Uruguay has been issued, and the figures presented by Don Urbano Chucarro show a very commendable degree of progress and development. From the voluminous report I translate the material facts for the benefit of the American educational world. It should be borne in mind that Uruguay is one of the most progressive of South American States in educational matters, and from 1876, when education was first made a governmental matter in the way of support and official care, up to the present time there has been but one year in which there was no increase in public schools. (In a parenthetical way, it may be here stated that during the said period the country had to overcome the effects of three revolutions.) The total number of schools in the several departments, or counties, as they may be called, is 533, and they have an average term time of nine months. The cities and towns have 181 schools, the rural sections reporting 352, and the increase in recent years has been more largely in the latter class. The change is shown thus: In 1876, 68 per cent were city schools and 32 per cent country schools. In 1896 the country schools had 67 per cent and the city list stood at 33 per cent.

In grades they stands as follows: First grade, 53; second grade, 124; third grade, 4, and ungraded, 352. Classified by sex, there are 69 for boys (varones) exclu