Kassala founded. In 1837 the pasha himself visited the Sudan, | Gordon made strenuous efforts towards crushing the slave trade, going as far as Fazokl, where he inspected the goldfields. In 1849 Abd-el-Latif Pasha became governor-general and attempted to remedy some of the evils which disfigured the administration: He remained in office, however, little more than a year, too short a period to effect reforms. The Sudan was costing Egypt more money than its revenue yielded, though it must not be forgotten that large sums found their way illicitly into the hands of the pashas. The successors of Mehemet Ali, in an endeavour to make the country more profitable, extended their conquests to the south, and in 1853 and subsequent years trading posts were established on the Upper Nile, the pioneer European merchant being John Petherick, British consular agent at Khartum. Petherick sought for ivory only, but those who followed him soon found that slave-raiding was more profitable than elephant hunting. The viceroy Said, who made a rapid tour through the Sudan in 1857, found it in a deplorable condition. The viceroy ordered many reforms to be executed and proclaimed the abolition of slavery. The reforms were mainly inoperative and slavery continued. The project which Said also conceived of linking the Sudan to Egypt by railway remained unfulfilled. The Sudan at this time (c. 1862) is described by Sir Samuel Baker as utterly ruined by Egyptian methods of government and the retention of the country only to be accounted for by the traffic in slaves. The European merchants above Khartum had sold their posts to Arab agents, who oppressed the natives in every conceivable fashion. Ismail Pasha, who became viceroy of Egypt in 1863, gave orders for the suppression of the slave trade, and to check the operations of the Arab traders a military force was stationed at Fashoda (1865), this being the most southerly point then held by the Egyptians. Ismail's efforts to put an end to the slave trade, if sincere, were ineffective, and, moreover, south of Kordofan the authority of the government did not extend beyond the posts Occupied by their troops. Ismail, however, was ambitious to extend his dominions and to develop the Sudan on the lines he had conceived for the development of Egypt. He obtained (1865) from the sultan of Turkey a firman assigning to him the administration of Suakin and Massawa; the lease which Mehemet Ali had of these ports having lapsed after the death of that pasha. Ismail subsequently (1870-1875) extended his sway over the whole coast from Suez to Cape Guardafui and garrisoned the towns of Berbera, Zaila, &c., while in 1874 the important town of Harrar, the entrepôt for southern Abyssinia, was seized by Egyptian troops. The khedive had also seized Bogos, in the hinterland of Massawa, a province claimed by Abyssinia. This action led to wars with Abyssinia, in which the Egyptians were generally beaten. Egyptian authority was withdrawn from the coast regions south of Suakin in 1884 (see below and also ABYSSINIA; ERITREA and SOMALILAND). At the same time that Ismail annexed the seaboard he was extending his sway along the Nile valley to the equatorial lakes, and conceived the idea of annexing all the country between the Nile and the Indian Ocean. An expedition was sent (1875) to the Juba River with that object, but it was withdrawn at the request of the British government, as it infringed the rights of the sultan of Zanzibar. The control of all territories south of Gondokoro had been given (April 1, 1869) to Sir Samuel Baker, who, however, only left Khartum to take up his governorship in February 1870. Reaching Gondokoro on The Equatorial the 26th of May following, he formally annexed Regions: that station, which he named Ismailia, to the khedival Darfur domains. Baker remained as governor of the Equatorial Provinces until August 1873, and in March 1874 Colonel C. G. Gordon took up the same post. Both Baker and The government monopoly in trade ceased after the death of Mehemet Ali in 1849. The Juba was quite unsuitable as a means of communication between the Indian Ocean and the Nile. The proposal made to Ismail by Gordon was to send an expedition to Mombasa and thence up the Tana River, but for some unexplained reason, or perhaps by mistake, the expedition was ordered to the Juba (see Col. Gordon in Central Africa, 4th ed., 1885, pp. 65, 66, 150 and 151, and Geog. Journ., Feb. 1, 1909, p. 150). conquered. but their endeavours were largely thwarted by the inaction of the authorities at Khartum. Under Gordon the Upper Nile region as far as the borders of Uganda came effectively under Egyptian control, though the power of the government extended on the east little beyond the banks of the rivers. On the west the Bahr-el-Ghazal had been overrun by Arab or semi-Arab slave-dealers. Nominally subjects of the khedive, they acted as free agents, reducing the country over which they terrorized to a state of abject misery. The most powerful of the slave traders was Zobeir Pasha, who, having defeated a force sent from Khartum to reduce him to obedience, invaded Darfur (1874). The khedive, fearing the power of Zobeit, also sent an expedition to Darfur, and that country, after a stout resistance, was conquered. Zobeir claimed to be made governorgeneral of the new province; his request being refused, he went to Cairo to urge his claim. At Cairo he was detained by the Egyptian authorities. Though spasmodic efforts were made to promote agriculture and open up communications the Sudan continued to be a con. stant drain on the Egyptian exchequer. The khedive Ismail revived Said's project of a railway, and a survey for a line from Wadi Halfa to Khartum was made (1871), while a branch line to Massawa was also contemplated. As with Said's project these schemes came to naught. In October 1876 Gordon left the Equatorial Provinces and gave up his appointment In February 1877, under pressure from the British General and Egyptian governments, he went to Cairo, where Gordon he, was given the governorship of the whole of the Governor Egyptian territories outside Egypt; namely, the general Sudan provinces proper, the Equatorial Provinces, Darfur, and the Red Sea and Somali coasts. He replaced at Khartum Ismail Pasha Eyoub, a Turk made governor-general in 1873, who had thwarted as much as he dared all Gordon's efforts to reform. Gordon remained in the Sudan until August 1879. During his tenure of office he did much to give the Sudanese the benefit of a just and considerate government. In 1877 Gordon suppressed a revolt in Darfur and received the submission of Suliman Zobeir (a son of Zobeir Pasha), who was at the head of a gang of slave-traders on the Bahr-el-Ghazal frontier. In 1878 there was further trouble in Darfur and also in Kordofan, and Gordon visited both these provinces, breaking up many companies of slave-hunters. Meantime Suliman (acting on the instructions of his father, who was still at Cairo) had broken out into open revolt against the Egyptians in the Bahr-elGhazal. The crushing of Suliman was entrusted by Gordon to Romolo Gessi (1831-1881), an Italian who had previously served under Gordon on the Upper Nile. Gessi, after a most arduous campaign (1878-79), in which he displayed great military skill, defeated and captured Suliman, whom, with other ringleaders, he executed. The slave-raiders were completely broken up and over 10,000 captives released. A remnant of Zubeir's troops under a chief named Rabah succeeded in escaping westward, (see RABAH). Having conquered the province Gessi was made governor of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and given the rank of pasha. When Gordon left the Sudan he was succeeded at Khartum by Raouf Pasha, under whom all the old abuses of the Egyptian administration were revived. At this time the high European officials in the Sudan, besides Gessi, included Emin Pasha (9.v.) -then a bey only-governor of the Equatorial Province since 1878, and Slatin Pasha-then also a bey-governor of Darfur. Gessi, who had most successfully governed his province, found his position under Raouf intolerable, resigned his post in September 1880 and was succeeded by Frank Lupton, an Englishman, and formerly captain of a Red Sea merchant steamer, who was given the rank of bey. At this period (1880-1882) schemes for the reorganization and better administration of the Sudan were elaborated on paper, but the revolt in Egypt under Arabi (see EGYPT: History) and the appearance in the Sudan of a Mahdi prevented these schemes from being put into Up to 1877, when the work was abandoned, some 50 m. of rails had been laid from Wadi Halfa at a cost of some £450,000. execution (assuming that the Egyptian authorities were sincere | Assuan and collected at Khartum troops from some of the outin proposing reforms). C. The Rise and Power of Mahdism.-The Mahdist movement, which was utterly to overthrow Egyptian rule, derived its strength from two different causes: the oppression under which the people suffered,' and the measures taken to prevent the Baggara (cattle-owning Arabs) from slave trading. Venality. and the extortion of the tax-gatherer flourished anew after the departure of Gordon, while the feebleness of his successors inspired in the Baggara a contempt for the authority which prohibited them pursuing their most lucrative traffic. When Mahommed Ahmed (q.v.), a Dongolese, proclaimed himself the long-looked-for Mahdi (guide) of Islam, he found most of his original followers among the grossly superstitious villagers of Kordofan, to whom he preached universal equality and a community of goods, while denouncing the Turks2 as unworthy Moslems on whom God would execute judgment. The Baggara perceived in this Mahdi one who could be used to shake off Egyptian rule, and their adhesion to him first gave importance to his "mission." Mahommed Ahmed became at once the leader and the agent of the Baggara. He married the daughters of their sheikhs and found in Abdullah, a member of the Taaisha section of the tribe, his chief supporter. The first armed conflict The between the Egyptian troops and the Mahdi's Massacre of followers occurred in August 1881. In June 1882 Hicks the Mahdi gained his first considerable success. Pasha's The capture of El Obeid on the 17th of January Army. 1883 and the annihilation in the November following of an army of over 10,000 men commanded by Hicks Pasha (Colonel William Hicks (q.v.] formerly of the Bombay army) made the Mahdi undisputed master of Kordofan and Sennar. The next month, December 1883, saw the surrender of Slatin in Darfur, whilst in February 1884 Osman Digna, his amir in the Red Sea regions, inflicted a crushing defeat on some 4000 Egyptians at El Teb near Suakin. In April following Lupton Bey, governor of Bahr-el-Ghazal, whose troops and officials had embraced the Mahdist cause, surrendered and was sent captive to Omdurman, where he died on the 8th of May 1888. Gordon at Khartum. On learning of the disaster to Hicks Pasha's army, the British government (Great Britain having been since 1882 in military Occupation of Egypt) insisted that the Egyptian government should evacuate such parts of the Sudan as they still held, and General Gordon was despatched, with Lieut.-Colonel Donald H. Stewart, to Khartum to arrange the withdrawal of the Egyptian civil and military population. Gordon's instructions, based largely on his own suggestions, were not wholly consistent; they contemplated vaguely the establishment of some form of stable government on the surrender of Egyptian authority, and among the documents with which he was furnished was a firman creating him governorgeneral of the Sudan. Gordon reached Khartum on the 18th of February 1884 and at first his mission, which had aroused great enthusiasm in England, promised success. To smooth the way for the retreat of the Egyptian garrisons and civilians he issued proclamations announcing that the suppression of the slave trade was abandoned, that the Mahdi was sultan of Kordofan, and that the Sudan was independent of Egypt. He enabled some thousands of refugees to make their escape to 1 Writing from Darfur in April 1879 Gordon said: "The government of the Egyptians in these far-off countries is nothing else but one of brigandage of the very worst description. It is so bad that all hope of ameliorating it is hopeless." The Sudanese spoke of all foreigners as "Turks." This arose from the fact that most of the higher Egyptian officials were of Turkish nationality and that the army was officered mainly by Turks, Albanians, Circassians, &c., and included in the ranks many Bashi-Bazuks (irregulars) of non-Sudanese origin. Colonel Stewart had been sent to Khartum in 1882 on a mission of inquiry, and he drew up a valuable report, Egypt, No. 11 (1883). It is unnecessary here to enter upon a discussion of the precise nature of Gordon's instructions or of the measure in which he carried them out. The material for forming a judgment will be found in Gordon's Journals (1885), Morley's Life of Gladstone (1903), Fitzmaurice's Life of Granville (1905), and Cromer's Modern Egypt (1908). (See also GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE.) lying stations. By this time the situation had altered for the worse and Mahdism was gaining strength among tribes in the Nile valley at first hostile to its propaganda. As the only means of preserving authority at Khartum (and thus securing the peaceful withdrawal of the garrison) Gordon repeatedly telegraphed to Cairo asking that Zobeir Pasha might be sent to him, his intention being to hand over to Zobeir the government of the country. Zobeir (q.v.), a Sudanese Arab, was probably the one man who could have withstood successfully the Mahdi. Owing to Zobeir's notoriety as a slave-raider Gordon's request was refused. All hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egyptians was thus rendered impossible. The Mahdist movement now swept northward and on the 20th of May Berber was captured by the dervishes and Khartum isolated. From this time the energies of Gordon were devoted to the defence of that town. After months of delay due to the vacillation of the British government a relief expedition was sent up the Nile under the command of Lord Wolseley. It.started too late to achieve its object, and on the 25th of January 1885 Khartum was captured by the Mahdi and Gordon killed. Colonel Stewart, Frank Power (British consul at Khartum) and M. Herbin (French consul), who (accompanied by nineteen Greeks) had been sent down the Nile by Gordon in the previous September to give news to the relief force, had been decoyed ashore and murdered (Sept. 18, 1884). The fall of Khartum was followed by the withdrawal of the British expedition, Dongola being evacuated in June 1885. In the same month Kassala capitulated, but just as the Mahdi had practically completed the destruction of the Egyptian power he died, in this same month of June 1885. He was at once succeeded by the khalifa Abdullah, whose rule continued until the 2nd of September 1898, when his army was completely overthrown by an Anglo-Egyptian force under Sir H. (afterwards Lord) Kitchener. The military operations are described elsewhere (see EGYPT: Military Operations), and here it is only necessary to consider the internal situation and the character of the khalifa's govern- The ment. The Mahdi had been regarded by his adhe- Khalifa's Rule. rents as the only true commander of the faithful, endued with divine power to conquer the whole world. He had at first styled his followers dervishes (i.e. religious mendicants) and given them the jibba as their characteristic garment or uniform. Later on he commanded the faithful to call themselves ansar (helpers), a reference to the part they were to play in his career of conquest, and at the time of his death he was planning an invasion of Egypt. He had liberated the Sudanese from the extortions of the Egyptians, but the people soon found that the Mahdi's rule was even more oppressive than had been that of their former masters, and after the Mahdi's death the situation of the peasantry in particular grew rapidly worse, neither life nor property being safe. Abdullah set himself steadily to crush all opposition to his own power. Mahommed Ahmed had, in accordance with the traditions which required the Mahdi to have four khalifas (lieutenants), nominated, besides Abdullah, Ali wad Helu, a sheikh of the Degheim and Kenana Arabs, and Mahommed esh Sherif, his son-in-law, as khalifas. (The other khalifaship was vacant having been declined by the sheikh es Senussi (q.v.]). Wad Helu and Sherif were stripped of their power and gradually all chiefs and amirs not of the Baggara tribe were got rid of except Osman Digna, whose sphere of operations was on the Red Sea coast. Abdullah's rule was a pure military despotism which brought the country to a state of almost complete agricultural and commercial ruin. He was also almost constantly in conflict either with the Shilluks, Nuers and other negro tribes of the south; with the peoples of Darfur, where at one time an anti-Mahdi gained a great following; with the Abyssinians; with the Kabbabish and other Arab tribes who Sennar town held out until the 19th of August, while the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa never fell into the hands of the Mahdists. The garrisons of some other towns were rescued by the Abyssinians. This period in the history of the Sudan is known as the Mahdia. savagery. SUDAN An exception was made in the case of Darfur, which before the battle of Omdurman had thrown off the khalifa's rule and was again under a native sovereign. This potentate, the sultan Ali Dinar, was recognized by the Sudan government, on condition of the payment of an annual tribute. had never embraced Mahdism, or with the Italians, Egyptians | the Sudan. The reorganization of the country had already and British. Notwithstanding all this opposition the khalifa begun, supreme power being centred in one official termed the found in his own tribesmen and in his black troops devoted adherents and successfully maintained his position. governor-general of the Sudan." To this post was appointed attempt to conquer Egypt ended in the total defeat of the army, under whom the Sudan had been reconquered. On Lord The Lord Kitchener, the sirdar (commander-in-chief) of the Egyptian dervish army at Toski (Aug. 3, 1889). The attempts to subdue Kitchener going to South Africa at the close of 1899 he was the Equatorial Provinces were but partly successful. Pasha, to whose relief H. M. Stanley had gone, evacuated F. R. Wingate, who had served with the Egyptian army since Emin succeeded as sirdar and governor-general by Major-General Sir Wadelai in April 1889. The greater part of the region and also 1883. Under a just and firm administration, which from the most of the Bahr-el-Ghazal relapsed into a state of complete first was essentially civil, though the principal officials were In the country under his dominion the khalifa's government manner from the woes it suffered during the Mahdia. At the officers of the British army, the Sudan recovered in a surprising was carried on after the manner of other Mahommedan states, head of every mudiria (province) was placed a British official, but pilgrimages to the Mahdi's tomb at Omdurman were substi-though many of the subordinate posts were filled by Egyptians. tuted for pilgrimages to Mecca. The arsenal and dockyard and the printing-press at Khartum were kept busy (the workmen being Egyptians who had escaped massacre). Otherwise Khartum was deserted, the khalifa making Omdurman his capital and compelling disaffected tribes to dwell in it so as to be under better control. While Omdurman grew to a huge size the population of the country generally dwindled enormously from constant warfare and the ravages of disease, small-pox being endemic. The Europeans in the country were kept prisoners at Omdurman. Besides ex-officials like Slatin and Lupton, they included several Roman Catholic priests and sisters, and numbers of Greek merchants established at Khartum. Although several were closely imprisoned, loaded with chains and repeatedly flogged, it is a noteworthy fact that none was put to death. From time to time a prisoner made his escape, and from the accounts of these ex-prisoners knowledge of the character of Dervish rule is derived in large measure. The fanaticism with which the Mahdi had inspired his followers remained almost unbroken to the end. The khalifa after the fatal day of Omdurman fled to Kordofan where he was killed in battle in November 1899. In January 1900 Osman Digna, a wandering fugitive for months, was captured. In 1902 the last surviving dervish amir of importance surrendered to the sultan of Darfur. Mahdism as a vital force in the old Egyptian Sudan ceased, however, with the Anglo-Egyptian victory at Omdurman.1 D. The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.-Of the causes which led to the reconquest of the Sudan-the natural desire of the Egyptian government to recover lost territory, the equally natural desire in Great Britain to "avenge" the death of Gordon were among them-the most weighty was the necessity of securing for Egypt the control of the Upper Nile, Egypt being wholly dependent on the waters of the river for its prosperity. That control would have been lost had a European power other than Great Britain obtained possession of any part of the Nile valley; and at the time the Sudan was reconquered (1896-98) France was endeavouring to establish her authority on the river between Khartum and Gondokoro, as the Marchand expedition from the Congo to Fashoda demonstrated. The Nile constitutes, in the words of Lord Cromer, the true justification of the policy of re-occupation, and makes the Sudan a priceless possession for Egypt.2 The Sudan having been reconquered by "the joint military and financial efforts" of Great Britain and Egypt, the British government claimed "by right of conquest" to share in the settlement of the administration and legislation of the country. To meet these claims an agreement (which has been aptly called the constitutional charter of the Sudan) between Great Britain and Egypt, was signed on the 19th of January 1899, establishing the joint sovereignty of the two states throughout 1 In the autumn of 1903 Mahommed-el-Amin, a native of Tunis, proclaimed himself the Mahdi and got together a following in Kordofan. He was captured by the governor of Kordofan and publicly executed at El Obeid. Arab and ex-dervish, rebelled in the Blue Nile province, claiming to In April 1908 Abd-el-Kader, a Halowin be the prophet Issa (Jesus). On the 29th of that month he murdered Mr C. C. Scott-Moncrieff, deputy inspector of the province, and the Egyptian mamur. Kader was captured and was hanged on the 17th of May. The rising was promptly suppressed, Abd-elEgypt, No. 1 (1905), p. 119. public order, met with comparatively feeble opposition, though The first duty of the new administration, the restoration of tribes such as the Nuba mountaineers, accustomed from time immemorial to raid their weaker neighbours, gave some trouble. In 1906, in 1908, and again in 1910 expeditions had to be sent against the Nubas. In the Bahr-el-Ghazal the Niam-Niams at first disputed the authority of the government, but Sultan Yambio, the recalcitrant chief, was mortally wounded in a fight in February 1905 and no further disturbance occurred. (1903-1904) of the frontier between the Sudan and Abyssinia enabled order to be restored in a particularly lawless region, The delimitation and slave-raiding on a large scale ended in that quarter with Kordofan, Darfur and the Bahr-el-Ghazal the slave trade continued however for some years later. the capture and execution of a notorious offender in 1904. In The Re increased steadily. The history of the country became one of peaceful progress marked by the growing contentWith good administration and public security the population ment of the people. The Sudan government devoted generative commerce, to the creation of an educated class of Great much attention to the revival of agriculture and Work of natives, and to the establishment of an adequate judicial system. Their task, though one of immense difficulty, Britain. 1899) free from all the international fetters that bound the was however (in virtue of the agreement of the 19th of January administration of Egypt.. It was morcover rendered easier by the decision to govern, as far as possible, in accordance with native law and custom, no attempt being made to Egyptianize factory. The Arab-speaking and Mahommedan population or Anglicize the Sudanese. The results were eminently satisfound their religion and language respected, and from the first showed a marked desire to profit by the new order. negroes of the southern Sudan, who were exceedingly suspicious of all strangers-whom hitherto they had known almost exclusively as slave-raiders-the very elements of civilization To the Sudan government encouraged the work of missionary societies, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, while discouraging had, in most cases, to be taught. In these pagan regions the propaganda work among the Moslems. system of very light taxation; low taxation being in countrics such as Egypt and the Sudan the keystone of the political arch. In their general policy the Sudan government adopted a This policy was amply justified by results. In 1899 the revenue derived from the country was £E126,000, in 1909 it had risen to the growing prosperity of the land. This prosperity was brought about largely by improving the water-supply, and thus bringing LE1,040,000, despite slight reductions in taxation, a proof of more land under cultivation, by the creation of new industries, and by the improvement of means of communication. A shorter route to the sea than that through Egypt being essential for the At first Suakin was excepted from some of the provisions of this agreement, but these exceptions were done away with by a supplementary agreement of the 10th of July 1899. commercial development of the country, a railway from the Nile | In order to obtain the great heat required, the whole wall was near Berber to the Red Sea was built (1904-1906). This line shortened the distance from Khartum to the nearest seaport by nearly 1000 m., and by reducing the cost of carriage of merchandise enabled Sudan produce to find a profitable outlet in the markets of the world. At the same time river communications were improved and the numbers of wells on caravan roads increased. Steps were furthermore taken by means of irrigation works to regulate the Nile floods, and those of the river Gash. To the promotion of education and sanitation, and in the administration of justice, the government devoted much energy with satisfactory results. Indeed the regenerative work of Great Britain in the Sudan has been fully as successful and even more remarkable than that of Great Britain in Egypt. A large part of this work has been accomplished by officers of the British army. Some of the most valuable suggestions about such matters as land settlement, agricultural loans, &c., emanated from officers who a short time before were performing purely military duties. Nevertheless civil servants gradually replaced military officers in the work of administration, army officers being liable to be suddenly removed for war or other service, often at times when the presence of officials possessed of local experience was most important. In efficiency and devotion to duty the Egyptian officials under the new régime also earned high praise. The relations of the Sudan government with its Italian, Abyssinian and French neighbours was marked by cordiality, Bahr-el- but with the Congo Free State difficulties arose over Ghazal and claims made by that state to the Bahr-el-Ghazal Lado. (see AFRICA, § 5). Congo State troops were in 1904 stationed in Sudanese territory. The difficulty was adjusted in 1906 when the Congo State abandoned all claims to the Ghazal province (whence its troops were withdrawn during 1907), and it was agreed to transfer the Lado enclave (q.v.) to the Sudan six months after the death of the king of the Belgians. Under the terms of this agreement the Lado enclave was incorporated in the Sudan in 1910. As to the general state of the country Sir Eldon Gorst after a tour of inspection declared in his report for 1909, "I do not suppose that there is any part of the world in which the mass of the population have fewer unsatisfied wants.' AUTHORITIES. Summaries of ancient and medieval history will be found in E A. Wallis Budge, The Egyptian Sudan (2 vols., 1907) and The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1095), edited by Count Gleichen. The story of the Egyptian conquest and events up to 1850 are summarized in H. Deherain's Le Soudan égyptien sous Mehemet Ali (Paris, 1898). For the middle period of Egyptian rule see Sir Samuel Baker's Ismailia (1874); Col. Gordon in Central Africa, edited by G. Birkbeck Hill (4th ed., 1885), being extracts from Gordon's diary, 1874-1880; Seven Years in the Soudan, by Romolo Gessi Pasha (1892); and Der Sudan unter agyptischer Herrschaft, by R. Buchta (Leipzig, 1888). The rise of Mahdism and events down to 1900 are set forth in (Sir) F. R. Wingate's Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan (1891). This book contains translations of letters and proclamations of the Mahdi and Khalifa. For this period the Journals of Major General Gordon at Khartoum (1885); F. Power's Letters from Khartoum during the Siege (1885), and the following four books written by prisoners of the dervishes are specially valuable: Slatin Pasha, Fire and Sword in the Sudan (1896); Father J Ohrwalder (from the MSS. of, by F. R. Wingate), Ten Years Captivity in the Mahdi's Camp (1882-1892) (1892); Father Paolo Rosignoli, I miei dodici anni di prigionia in mezzo ai dervice del Sudan (Mondovi, 1898); C. Neufeldt, A Prisoner of the Khaleefa (1899). See also G. Dujarric, L'Etat mahdiste du Soudan (Paris, 1901). For the "Gordon Relief" campaign, &c., see the British official History of the Sudan Campaign (1890); for the campaigns of 1896-98, H. S. L. Alford and W. D. Sword, The Egyptian Soudan, its Loss and Recovery (1898); G. W. Steevens, With Kitchener to Khartum (Edinburgh, 1898); Winston S. Churchill, The River War (revised ed., 1902). The story of the Fashoda incident is told mainly in British and French official despatches; consult also for this period G. Hanotaux, Fachoda (Paris, 1910); A. Lebon, La Politique de la France 1896-1898 (Paris, 1901); and R. de Caix, Fachoda, la France et l'Angleterre (Paris, 1899). Lord Cromer's Modern Egypt (1908) covers Sudanese history for the years 1881-1907. Consult also the authorities cited under EGYPT): Modern History, and H. Pensa, L'Egypte et le Soudan égyptien (Paris, 1895). Unless otherwise stated the place of publication is London. (F. R. C.) SUDATORIUM, the term in architecture for the vaulted sweating-room (sudor, sweat) of the Roman thermae, referred to in Vitruvius (v. 2), and there called the concamerata sudatio. lined with vertical terra-cotta flue pipes of rectangular section, placed side by side, through which the hot air and the smoke from the suspensura passed to an exit in the roof. SUDBURY, SIMON OF (d. 1381), archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Sudbury in Suffolk, studied at the university of Paris, and became one of the chaplains of Pope Innocent VI., who sent him, in 1356, on a mission to Edward III. of England. In October 1361 the pope appointed him bishop of London, and he was soon serving the king as an ambassador and in other ways. In 1375 he succeeded William Wittlesey as archbishop of Canterbury, and during the rest of his life was a partisan of John of Gaunt. In July 1377 he crowned Richard II., and in 1378 John Wycliffe appeared before him at Lambeth, but he only took proceedings against the reformer under great pressure. In January 1380 Sudbury became chancellor of England, and the revolting peasants regarded him as one of the principal authors of their woes. Having released John Ball from his prison at Maidstone, the Kentish insurgents attacked and damaged the archbishop's property at Canterbury and Lambeth; then, rushing into the Tower of London, they seized the archbishop himself. Sudbury was dragged to Tower Hill and, on the 14th of June 1381, was beheaded. His body was afterwards buried in Canterbury Cathedral. Sudbury rebuilt part of the church of St Gregory at Sudbury, and with his brother, John of Chertsey, he founded a college in this town; he also did some building at Canterbury. His father was Nigel Theobald, and he is sometimes called Simon Theobald or Tybald. See W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. SUDBURY, a post town and outport of Nipissing district, Ontario, Canada, on the Canadian Pacific railway, 443 m. W. of Montreal. Pop. (1901), 2027. It has manufactures of explosives, lumber and planing mills, and is the largest nickel mining centre in the world. Gold, copper and other minerals are also raised. Practically all the ore is shipped to the United States. SUDBURY, a market town and municipal borough of England, chiefly in the Sudbury parliamentary division of Suffolk, but partly in the Saffron Walden division of Essex. Pop. (1901), 7109. It lies on the river Stour (which is navigable up to the town), 59 m. N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway. All Saints' parish church, consisting of chancel, nave, aisles and tower, is chiefly Perpendicular-the chancel being Decorated. It possesses a fine oaken pulpit of 1490. The church was restored in 1882. St Peter's is Perpendicular, with a finely carved nave roof. St Gregory's, once collegiate, is Perpendicular. It has a rich spire-shaped font-cover of wood, gilt and painted. The grammar school was founded by William Wood in 1491. There are some old half-timbered houses, including one very fine example. The principal modern buildings are the town-hall, Victoria hall and St Leonard's hospital. Coco-nut matting is an important manufacture; silk manufactures were transferred from London during the 19th century, and horsehair weaving was established at the same time. There are also flour-mills, malt-kilns, limeworks, and brick and tile yards. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. The borough lies wholly in the administrative county of West Suffolk. Area, 1925 acres. The ancient Saxon borough of Sudbury (Sudbyrig, Sudberi, Suthberia) was the centre of the southern portion of the East Anglian kingdom. Before the Conquest it was a borough owned by the mother of Earl Morcar, from whom it was taken by William I., who held it in 1086. It was alienated from the Crown to an ancestor of Gilbert de Clare, 9th earl of Gloucester. In 1271 the earl gave the burgesses their first charter confirming to them all their ancient liberties and customs. The earl of March granted a charter to the mayor and bailiffs of Sudbury in 1397. In 1440 and again in 1445 the men and tenants of Sudbury obtained a royal confirmation of their privileges. They were incorporated in 1553 under the name of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Sudbury, and charters were granted to the town by Elizabeth, Charles II. and James II. Its constitution was reformed by the act of 1835. It was represented in parliament by two burgesses from 1558 till its disfranchisement in 1844. The lord of the borough had a market and fair in the 13th century, and three fairs in March, July and December were held in 1792. Markets still exist on Thursdays and Saturdays. Weavers were introduced by Edward III., and the town became the chief centre of the Suffolk cloth industry after the Restoration. SUDD, or SADD (an Arabic word meaning "to dam"), the name given to the vegetable obstruction which has at various dates closed the waters of the Upper, Nile to navigation. It is composed of masses of papyrus and um suf (Vossia procera) and the earth adhering to the roots of those reeds. Mingled with the papyrus and um suf (Arabic for "mother-of-wool") are small swimming plants and the light brittle ambach. The papyrus and um suf grow abundantly along the Nile banks and the connected lagoons between 7° N. and 13° N. Loosened by storms these reeds drift until they lodge on some obstruction and form a dam across the channel, converted by fresh arrivals into blocks that are sometimes 25 m. in length, and extend 15 to 20 ft. below the surface. These masses of decayed vegetation and earth, resembling peat in consistency, are so much compressed by the force of the current that men can walk over them everywhere. In parts elephants could cross them without danger. The pressure of the water at length causes the formation of a side channel or the bursting of the sudd. (For sudd cutting see NILE.) In the Bahr-el-Ghazal the sudd, being chiefly composed of small swimming plants, is of less formidable nature than that of the main stream. Socialist ideas of the day, and these prompted his most famous SUEBI, or SUEVI, a collective term applied to a number of See W. Kawerau, Hermann Sudermann (1897); H. Landsberg, Hermann Sudermann (1902); H. Jung, Hermann Sudermann (1902); H. Schoen, Hermann Sudermann, poète dramatique et romancier (1905); and I. Axelrod, Hermann Sudermann (1907). SUE, EUGÈNE [JOSEPH Marie] (1804-1857), French novelist, was born in Paris on the 20th of January 1804. He was the son of a distinguished surgeon in Napoleon's army, and is said to have had the empress Josephine for godmother. Sue himself acted as surgeon both in the Spanish campaign undertaken by France in 1823 and at the battle of Navarino (1828). In 1829 his father's death put him in possession of a considerable fortune, and he settled in Paris. His naval experiences supplied much of the materials of his first novels, Kernock le pirate (1830), Atar-Gull (1831), La Salamandre (2 vols., 1832), La Coucaratcha (4 vols., 1832-1834), and others, which were composed at the height of the romantic movement of 1830. In the quasi-historical style he wrote Jean Cavalier, ou Les Fanatiques des Cevennes (4 vols., 1840) and Latréaumont (2 vols., 1837). He was strongly affected by the not found in other ancient writers, is probably due to a confusion at least of the eastern tribes. In early Latin writers the term Suebi is occasionally applied to any of the above tribes. From the 2nd to the 4th century, however, it is seldom used except with reference to events in the neighbourhood of the Pannonian frontier, and here probably means the Quadi. From the middle of the 4th century onward it appears most frequently in the regions south of the Main, and soon the names Alamanni and Suabi are used synonymously. The Alamanni (q.v.) seem to have been, in part at least, the descendants of the ancient Hermunduri, but it is likely that they had been joined by one or more other Suebic peoples, from the Danubian region, or more probably from the middle Elbe, the land of the ancient Semnones. It is probably from the Alamannic region that those Suebi came who joined the Vandals in their invasion of Gaul, and eventually founded a kingdom in north-west Spain. After the 1st century the term Suebi seems never to be applied to the Langobardi and seldom to the Baiouarii (Bavarians), the descendants of the ancient Marcomanni. But besides the Alamannic Suebi we hear |