of Goulart and that (published officially by the government) attri- | buted to Jean Sarasin (1574-1632), the author of the Citadin de Genève (1606), are more laconic and more striking. J. B. Plantin (1625-1697), of Vaud, wrote his topography of Switzerland, Helvetia antiqua el nova (1656), in Latin, but his Abrégé de l'histoire générale de la Suisse (1666) in French, while Georges de Montmollin (16281703) of Neuchâtel wrote, besides various works as to local history, Mémoires of his times which have a certain historical value. But the 17th century in the Suisse Romande pales before the glories of the 18th century, which forms its golden age, and was in a large degree due to the influence of French refugees who, with their families, flocked thither after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) and settled down there for the rest of their lives. Such was Louis Bourguet (1678-1743), who, besides his geological works, founded two periodicals which in different ways did much to stimulate the intellectual life of the Suisse Romande; those were the Bibliothèque italique (1729-1734), which aimed at making more widely known the results of Italian research, and the Mercure suisse which, first issued in 1732, lasted till 1784, under different names (from 1738 onwards the literary section bore the name of Journal helvétique), and secured contributions from most of the leading writers of the Suisse Romande of the day, such as Firmin Abauzit (1679-1767), Abraham Ruchat (1678-1750), and others. Ruchat is now best remembered as the author (under the pen-name of Gottlieb Kypseler) of an excellent guide-book to Switzerland, the Délices de la Suisse, which first appeared in 1714 and passed through many editions, the latest being issued in 1778; but his Histoire de la Réformation de la Suisse (1727-1728) was much esteemed in his day. Another Vaudois historian and antiquary was Charles Guillaume Loys de Bochat (1695-1754) whose Mémoires critiques sur divers points de l'ancienne histoire de la Suisse (17471749) still form a treasure-house for archacologists. Yet a third Lausanne man was J. P. de Crousaz (1663-1750; q.v.), who introduced there the philosophy of Descartes, and was, by his books, the master of Gibbon in logic. A French refugee at Lausanne, Jean Barbeyrac (1674-1744), published in 1712 the Droit de la nature et des gens, a translation of Puffendorf's treatise, with a striking preface of his own. A precursor of Montesquieu and of Rousseau was Jean Jacques Burlamaqui (1694–1750) in his Principes du droit naturel et politique (1747 and 1751, issued together in 1763), while the celebrated international lawyer, Eméric de Vattel (17141767), was a native of Neuchâtel by birth and descent, and, though he spent most of his life at foreign courts, died at Neuchâtel, not so very long after the publication of his famous Droit des gens (1758). The year 1754 is a great date in the literary history of the Suisse Romande, for in that year Rousseau came back for good to Geneva, and Voltaire established himself at Ferney, while in 1753 Gibbon had begun his first residence (which lasted till 1758) in Lausanne. The earlier writers mentioned above had then nearly all disappeared, and a more brilliant set took their place. But Rousseau (g.v.), though a Genevese, belongs rather to European than to Swiss literature, as do later Jacques Necker (q.v.) and his daughter, Madame de Staël (q.v.), Benjamin Constant (q..) and Sismondi (q.v.). Madame de Charrière (1740-1805) was Dutch by birth, but married to a native of Neuchâtel. Among her earlier works were two novels, Le Mari sentimental (1783), and the Lettres de Mistress Henley (1784), both of which had a great vogue in their day and paint, from her own experience, the sad results of an unsuitable marriage. More celebrated by reason of the liveliness and acuteness with which the manners of a little provincial town are described are her Lettres de Lausanne (1871), and her Lettres neuchâteloises (1784), particularly the second part of a story of the former, entitled Caliste, and published in 1788, for, according to Sainte-Beuve, it was a sort of foreshadowing of the more famous Corinne (1807) of Madame de Staël. P. H. Mallet (q.v.), a Genevese, who held a chair at Copenhagen, devoted himself to making known to the educated world the history and antiquities of Scandinavia. But more characteristic of Geneva were the efforts of a group of men to spread the cause of natural science by personal investigations in the higher Alps, then but little known. Possibly their interest in such matters had been stimulated by the scientific and psychological speculations of Charles Bonnet (q.v.). The chief of this school was H. B. de Saussure (g.v.) one of the founders of geology and meteorology, while his Alpine ascents (undertaken in the cause of science) opened a new world even to non-scientific travellers. The brothers De Luc (q.v.) devoted themselves mainly to questions of physics in the Alps, while Senebier (g.v.), the biographer of Saussure, was more known as a physiologist than as a physicist, though he wrote on many branches of natural science, which in those days was not yet highly specialized. On the other hand Marc Théodore Bourrit (q.v.), the contemporary of these three men, was rather a curious and inquisitive traveller than a scientific investigator, and charms us even now by his genial simplicity as contrasted with the austerity and gravity of the three writers we have mentioned. Philippe Cyriaque Bridel (1757-1845), best known as the "doyen Bridel," was the earliest of the Vaudois poets by virtue of his Poésies helvétiennes (1782). But he is better known as the painter of the scenery and people among whom he worked as pastor at Basel, at Château d'Oex, and at Montreux successively. His Course de Bâle à Bienne par les vallées du Jura appeared in 1802, while descriptions of his travels, as well as of the manners of the natives, local history, and in short everything that could stimulate national sentiment, were issued in a series of periodicals from 1783 to 1831 under the successive titles of Elrennes helvétiennes and of Conservateur suisse. His patriotic aim met with great success, while his impressions of his mountain wanderings are fresh and unspoilt by any straining after effect. He was the first writer of the Suisse Romande to undertake such wanderings, so that, with obvious differences, he may be regarded not merely as the forerunner, but as the inspirer and model of later Vaudois travellers and climbers in the Alps, such as Rodolphe Töpffer (q.v.), of E. Rambert (q.v.), and of the last-named's most brilliant pupil, Emile Javelle (1844-1883), whose articles were collected in 1886 by the pious care of his friends under the title of Souvenirs d'un alpiniste. As a poet Juste Olivier (q.v.) surpassed Bridel. Nor can we wonder that with the advance of knowledge Bridel's history is found to be more picturesque than scientific. Two Vaudois, Charles Monnard (1790-1865) and Louis Vulliemin (1797-1879) carried out their great scheme of translating (18371840) J. von Müller's Swiss history with its continuation by Hottinger, and then completed it (1841-1851) down to 1815. This gigantic task did not, however, hinder the two friends from making many solid contributions to Swiss historical learning. Later in date were Alexandre Daguet (1816-1894) who wrote an excellent history of Switzerland, while Jean Joseph Hisely (1800-1866), Albert Rilliet (1809-1883), and Pierre Vaucher (1833-1898), all devoted much labour to studying the many problems offered by the early authentic history (from 1291 onwards) of the Swiss Confederation. A different type of history is the work of an honest but partisan writer, the Genevese Jules Henri Merle d'Aubigné (1794-1872), entitled Histoire de la réformation au temps de Calvin (1835-1878). The Vaudois noble Frédéric Gingins-la-Sarra (1790-1863) represents yet another type of historian, devoting himself mainly to the medieval history of Vaud, but occasionally going beyond the numberless authentic documents brought to light by him, and trying to make them prove more than they can fairly be expected to tell us. Jean Antoine Petit-Senn (1792-1870) was a thorough Genevese and a biting satirist, a pensive poet, the "Genevese La Bruyère," as he liked to be called, but was not fully appreciated till after his death, when his widely scattered writings were brought together. Alexandre Vinet (q.v.), the theologian, and H. F. Amiel (q.v.), the philosopher, in a fashion balance each other, and need only be mentioned here. Jean Jacques Porchat (1800-1864) was one of the most prominent among the minor pocts of the region, very French owing to his long residence in Paris, and best remembered probably by his fables, first published in 1837 under the title of Glanures d'Esope (reissued in 1854 as Fables et paraboles), though in his day his stories for the young were much appreciated. Urbain Olivier (1810-1888), a younger brother of the poet, wrote many tales of rural life in Vaud, while the Genevese novelist Victor Cherbuliez (1829-1899, q.v.) was perhaps the most brilliant of a brilliant family. Fribourg has produced the local novelist Pierre Sciobéret (1830-1876) and the Bohemian poet Étienne Eggis (1830-1867), and Neuchâtel Auguste Bachelin (1830-1890) whose best novel was Jean Louis, a tale of which the scene is laid in the old-fashioned little village of St Blaise. Another Neuchâtel writer, Alice de Chambrier, the poetess, died young, as did the Genevese poet Louis Duchosal, both showing in their short lives more promise than performance. Madame de Gasparin's (18131894) best tale is Horizons prochains (1857), a very vivid story of rural life in the Vaudois Jura, remarkable for the virile imagination of its descriptions. Edouard Rod (q.v.) the novelist, and Marc Monnier (q.v.), critic, poet, dramatist and novelist, are the most prominent figures in the recent literature of the Suisse Romande. Amongst lesser stars we may mention in the department of belles-lettres (novelists, poets or crítics) Charles Du Bois-Melly, "T. Combe " (the pen name of Mile Adèle Huguenin), Samuel Cornut, Louis Favre, Philippe Godet, Oscar Huguenin, Philippe Monnier, Noelle Roger, Virgile Rossel, Paul Seippel and Gaspard Vallette. The chief literary organ of the Suisse Romande is the Bibliothèque univer selle, which in 1816 took that title in lieu of Bibliothèque britannique (founded in 1796), and in 1861 added that of Revue suisse, which it then absorbed. Amongst historians the first place is due to one of the most learned men whom Switzerland has ever produced, and whose services to the history of the Valais were very great, and abbé Jean Gremaud (1823-1897) of Fribourg. The principal contemporary historians are Victor van Berchem, Francis De Crue, Camille Favre, Henri Fazy, B. de Mandrot, Berthold van Muyden and Edouard Rott. c. Italian Branch.-Italian Switzerland is best known by its artists, while its literature is naturally subject to strong Italian influences, and not to any of a strictly Swiss nature. Stefano Franscini (1796-1857) did much for his native land, especially in educational matters, while his chief published work (1835) was one that gave a general account of the canton. But this is not so thorough and good as a later book by Luigi Lavizzari (1814-1875), entitled Escursioni nel cantone Ticino (1863), which is very complete from all points of view. Angelo Barotho (d. 1893) and Emilio Motta represent the historical sciences, the latter contributing much to the Bollettino della Svizzera Italiana (from 1879 onwards), which, though mainly historical, devotes much space to literary and historical matters relating to the canton. The art of novel writing does not flourish in Ticino. But it has produced a great number of poets such as Pietro Peri (1794-1869), who translated the Swiss national anthem into Italian, J. B. Buzzi (1825-1898), Giovanni Airoldi (died before 1900) and Carlo Cioccari (1829-1891)—the two former were lyric poets, and the third a dramatist. Two younger singers are F. Chiesa and M. A. Nessi. son. was thoroughly revised (19th edition) in 1904, while it is not necessary to do more than mention the guide-books of Baedeker and Joanne, of which new editions often appear (that by Iwan von Tschudi is no longer kept up to date). The best maps of Switzerland are those published by the Federal Topographical Bureau at Bern. One, called from the director of the survey (G. H. Dufour, 1787-1875) the Dufour Map (scale 1: 100,000), was published in twenty-five sheets between 1845 and 1863 (see the detailed history of this map in the work entitled Die schweizerische Landesvermessung, 1832-1864, Bern, 1896). It has however, been practically superseded by the issue (revised and corrected) of the original survey (scale 1: 25,000 for the plains and 1 50,000 for the mountain districts) in 598 sheets, of which the publication began in 1870-this magnificent map, one of the finest ever executed, is named the Siegfried Atlas, from the successor of Dufour at the head of the survey, Hermann Siegfried (1819-1879). The history of Swiss travel has been told by G. Peyer, Geschichte des Reisens in der Schweiz (Basel, 1885), and W. A. B. Coolidge, Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-Books (London, 1889). That of the exploration of the Swiss Alps is contained in Gottlieb Studer's Über Eis und Schnce (Bern, 3 vols., new ed., 1896-1899), while Bernard Studer's Geschichte der physischen Geographie der Schweis bis 1815 (Bern, 1863) describes the gradual examination of the country from the scientific point of view. The last-named work contains many short lives of eminent Swiss. These are narrated more in detail in R. Wolf's Biographicen zur Kulturgeschichte der Schweiz (4 vols., Zürich, 1858-1862); E. Secretan's Galerie suisse (3 vols., Lausanne, 1873-1880); and Sammlung berner Biographieen (Bern, as yet 5 vols., 1884-1906). (See also ALPS and GLACIERS.) As to languages in Switzerland the best general work is J. Zimmerli's Die deutsch-französische Sprachgrenze in der Schweiz (3 vols., Basel and Geneva, 1891-1899); while for the Swiss-German dialects there is the splendid Schweizerisches Idiotikon (of which the publication began at Frauenfeld in 1881); and the Glossaire des palois de la Suisse romande. For one branch of the curious Ladin dialect, see Z. and E. Pallioppi's Dizionari dels idioms romauntschs d'Engiadina, &c. (Samaden, 1895); while for select extracts of all branches of the Romonsch or Ladin literature consult C. Decurtins, Rātoromanische Chrestomathie (8 vols., Erlangen, 1894-1907), of which the vols. i., ii., iii. and iv. refer to the Romonsch dialect of the Bündner Oberland, and the rest to the Ladin dialect of the Engadine. F. J. Stalder's Versuch eines schweizerischen Idiotikon (2 vols.Aarau, 1806-1812) is still useful, as is his later work Die Landessprachen der Schweiz (Aarau, 1819). d. Romonsch and Ladin Branch. In the Grisons alone still lingers a quaint Romance dialect, which is a laggard sister of French and Italian, and has therefore not much to show in the way of literary activity. Indeed it would probably have perished altogether by this time had not certain energetic men and societies more or less successfully tried to bring about a sort of artificial revival. It is distinguished into two main dialects, that of the Bündner Oberland or the valley of the Vorder Rhine being called Romonsch, while that spoken in the Engadine and the neighbouring valleys is known as Ladin. Both took their origin from the spoken tongue or lingua rustica Romana in the days of the later empire. The earliest known monument of this interesting survival was discovered in 1907, and consists of a few lines, in an early form of the Romonsch dialect, of interlinear translation (with the original Latin text) of a sermon attributed to St Augustine. This monument is said to date from the early 12th century. The first poem in Ladin was one on the Musso War, written in 1527 by Johann von Travers (1483-1563), though it was not published till 1865. The first book printed in it (at Poschiavo in 1552) was the translation of a German catechism, and the next a translation of the New Testament, also at Poschiavo, but in 1560. Most of the works in both these dialects are translations of books of a religious or educational nature. The principal writers in the Romonsch dialect (the less literary of the two) of recent times are Theodor von Castelberg (1748-1830), a poet and translator of poetry, and P. A. de Latour (about 1814) also a poct, while the best of all poets in this dialect was Anton Huonder, whose lyrics are considered remarkable. Alexander Balletta (1842-1887) wrote prose romances and sketches, while J. C. Muoth (1844-1906), himself a most typical and characteristic figure, wrote much in prose and verse as regards his native region. In Ladin one of the chief figures was the poet Conradin von Flugi (1787-1874), who published volumés of poems in 1845 and 1861, but the poems, novels and translations of J. F. Caderas (1830-1891) are placed above them. Other Ladin poets are Florin Valentin, O. P. Juvalta and S. Caratsch (d. 1892), while P. Lansel represents a younger generation. Zaccaria Pallioppi (1820-1873) also wrote poems, but the excellent Ladin dictionary that he compiled was not published till 1895 by the care of his (W. A. B. C.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.-a. General. The indispensable work for any one desiring to know what books have been written on any subject relating to Switzerland is the officially published Bibliographie der schweizerischen Landeskunde, a series of detached parts, cach complete in itself, and issued separately (Bern, from 1892 onwards). In particular may be mentioned: A. Waber's Landes- und Reisebe-(2 vols., Brieg, 1907). Another feature of the life of the people in schreibungen (1899; with a supplement, 1909), that deals with works of travel in Switzerland (see, too, the new edition, London, 1899, of J. Ball's Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps, pp. 140152), and J. H. Graf, Kartenwesen (1896), which enumerates all the maps of Switzerland and its various districts. Among the best of the older descriptions may be mentioned those of A. von Bonstetten (1479), Conrad Türst (1495), Sebastian Münster (1544), J. Stumpf (1548), J. Simler (1574), M. Merian (1642), J. J. Scheuchzer (1723), G. S. Gruner (1760), P. F. D. de Zurlauben (1777) and W. Coxe (1779). More modern, but still useful in many ways, are Max Wirth, Allgemeine Beschreibung und Statistik der Schweis (3 vols., Zürich, 1871-1875), and H. A. Berlepsch, Schweizerkunde (2nd ed., Brunswick, 1875). The most complete and recent monograph on the country from all points of view is the work (700 pp.) Swiss carriage roads, especially across the Alpine passes, are entitled La Suisse (also in German), with atlas of 48 maps, reprinted described in S. Bavier, Die Strassen der Schweiz (Zürich, 1878), from the Dictionnaire géographique de la Suisse (Neuchâtel, 1909). and the official book, Die schweizerischen Alpenpässe (2nd ed., For a pretty complete detailed account of its chief towns, villages 1893). For the history of the several Swiss Alpine passes consult and mountains, by far the best work is the Dictionnaire géographique in particular P. H. Scheffel, Verkehrsgeschichte der Alpen (Berlin, de la Suisse (Neuchâtel, 1902, and following years; it is also issued 1908-1909); R. Reinhard, Pässe und Strassen in den schweizer in German). A complete account of the country in the 19th century Alpen (Lucerne, 1903), which gives full references; and E. Ochlis given in the work entitled La Suisse au xixe siècle (3 vols., mann's articles "Die Alpenpasse im Mittelalter," published in Lausanne, 1899-1900; also issued in German). For statistics see vols. iii. and iv. (Zurich, 1878-1879) of the Jahrbuch für schweizerthe official census of 1900 (Bern, 3 vols., 1904-1907), as well as the ische Geschichte). The Simplon has a special history, F. Barbey, annual official publication Statistisches Jahrbuch der Schweiz (from La Route du Simplon (Geneva, 1906), as has also the St Gotthard; 1891, see specially the vol. for 1897, Allas graphique et statistique de E. Motta, Dei Personaggi celebri che varcarono il Gottardo nei tempi la Suisse, with many diagrams), and another (appearing six times antichi e moderni (Bellinzona, 1884; later continued in the Bollet a year at Bern, since 1865) the Zeitschrift für schweizerische Statistik. tino della Svizzera Italiana). As to Swiss railways in general, see For educational matters the annual official Jahrbuch für Unter- R. Herold, Der schweizerische Bund und die Eisenbahnen bis zur richtswesen in der Schweis (Zürich, from 1894) is very useful. For Jahrhundertwende (Munich, 1902); P. Weissenbach, Die Eisen: mountaineers there is the Climbers' Guides Series (London, from bahnverstaatlichung in der Schweiz (Berlin, 1905); and C. P. Wiede1890, now comprising 11 vols. relating to Switzerland), and the mann, Die geschichtliche Entwicklung der schweizer. Eisenbahntwo works published by the Swiss Alpine Club, Clubführer durch gesetzgebung (Zürich, 1905). The St Gotthard railway and its history die Glarner Alpen (1902), and Clubführer durch die Urner Alpen are treated of at length by M. Wanner in his two works-Geschichte (2 vols., 1905). Murray's Handbook for Travellers in Switzerland | der Begründung des Gotthardunternehmens (Lucerne, 1880); and The Archiv für Volkskunde published by the Société suisse des traditions populaires (Zürich, from 1897), contains much that is interesting in the way of folk-lore, while for Swiss legends in general consult E. Kohlrusch, Schweizerisches Sagenbuch (Leipzig, 1854); A. Lütolf, Sagen, Bräuche, Legenden aus den Fünf Orten (Lucerne, 1862); M. Tscheinen and P. J. Ruppen, Walliser-Sagen (Sion, 1872); A. Cérésole, Légendes des alpes vaudoises (Lausanne, 1885); J. Kuoni, Sagen des Kantons St Gallen (St Gall, 1903); T. Vernaleken, Alpensagen (Vienna, 1858); D. Gempeler's Sagen und Sagengeschichten aus dem Simmenthal (Thun,1883-1893); and Walliser-Sagen Switzerland is treated in H. Herzog's Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten, und Gebräuche (Aarau, 1884). For educational matters the two following books (with the Jahrbuch für Unterrichtswesen in der Schweiz, already mentioned) will be found specially useful: F. Escali, L'Instruction primaire en Suisse (Paris, 1883) and the annual volume (Geneva, from 1904) entitled L'Education en Suisse. For the Swiss universities see the special histories mentioned in the articles on the several cantons, while for the Swiss Polytechnic School at Zürich, consult W. Occhsli's Geschichte der Gründung des eidg. Polytechnicums (Frauenfeld. 1905). As to the mountain pastures, see ALP, where a list of books is given. | Geschichte des Baues der Gotthardbahn (Lucerne, 1885). For a and A. von Fischer's Die Schlösser d. Kant. Bern (Bern, about 1898). general estimate of the commercial importance of the Simplon All the great churches of Switzerland have also been made the subrailway, see A. Möhring, Die Simplonbahn-eine verkehrswirth-ject of monographs-so the Münster in Bern, by B. Haendcke and schaftliche Studie (Bern, 1907). For a technical description of the V. Muller (Bern, 1894); Lausanne, by E. Dupraz (Lausanne, 1906), works for the Simplon tunnel see an article (also issued separately) &c. As to the wooden architecture so characteristic of Switzerland, by K. Pressel in vol. xlvii. of the Schweizerische Bauzeitung (Zürich), consult E. G. Gladbach's Die Holz-Architektur der Schweiz (2nd while similar details, as well as more general notices, relating to ed., Leipzig, 1885-the same author has also issued several series the Splügen tunnel are given in G. Bener and R. Herold, Studien of plates illustrating this subject). Domestic Swiss architecture zur Ostalpenbahnfrage (Zürich, 1907); and A. Mettler, Der Splügen in general is represented by J. Hunziker's Das Schweizerhaus (Aarau), als ostschweizerische Alpenbahn (Zürich, 1907). As to the Jungfrau which includes 4 vols. dealing respectively with the Valais (1900), railway, see A. H. Guyer-Zeller, Das Projekt der Jungfraubahn Ticino (1902), the Grisons and Glarus (1905), and the Jura with (Zürich, 1896, with atlas of plates); and S. Herzog, Die Jungfraubahn most of the Suisse Romande (1907). A. Robida's Les Vieilles (Zürich, 1904). A special part of the Bibliographie der schweizer. villes de Suisse (Paris, 1879) is a pleasantly written book. The Landeskunde is devoted to Swiss railways. biographies of Swiss artists are conveniently summarized in the Economical: Trade and Commerce.-As to the general economical Schweizerisches Künstler-Lexikon (Frauenfeld, from 1902 onwards), state of Switzerland, the older Volkswirthschafts-Lexikon der Schweiz, the order followed being alphabetical, while full references to special by A. Furrer (Bern, 4 vols., 1885-1892), may still be consulted works, are given in each case. For Swiss glass painting, see H. with advantage, while naturally more up to date is N. Reichesberg's Meyer's Die schweizerische Sitte der Fenster- und Wappenschenkung Handwörterbuch der Schweiz. Volkswirthschaft, Socialpolitik und vom xv. bis xvii. Jahrhundert (Frauenfeld, 1884); and B. Haendcke's Verwaltung (Bern, since 1903). A very useful and well-arranged Die schweiz. Malerei im xvi. Jahrhundert unter Berücksichtigung work is A. Le Cointe's Inventaire des institutions économiques et der Glasmalerei, des Formschnittes, und des Kupferstiches (Aarau, sociales de la Suisse à la fin du xixe siècle (Geneva, 1900). W. H. 1893); while Swiss fresco painting is treated of in Konrad Escher's Dawson's Social Switzerland (London, 1897), deals with matters Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Wand- und Deckenmalerei in rather from the social than from the strictly economical standpoint, der Schweis vom ix. bis zum Anfang des xvi. Jahrhunderts (Strassbut contains a variety of interesting information, while H. D. burg, 1906); while the town shields are depicted in P. Küpfer's Lloyd's The Swiss Democracy (London, 1908), is rather more political. Armorial des villes suisses (Basel, 1885); and their seals in E. SchulA very handy, trustworthy and admirable work of moderate size thess's Die Städte- und Landes-Siegel der Schweiz (Zürich, 1853). on Switzerland generally from an economical point of view is Early Swiss heraldry is historically described in P. Ganz's Geschichte T. Geering and R. Hotz's Economie politique de la Suisse (Zürich, d. herald. Kunst in der Schweiz im xii. und xiii. Jahrhundert (Frauen1903, trans. of a German work issued in 1902)-the German only feld, 1899). The Swiss Renaissance is dealt with by G. Schneeli, has the detailed bibliography. P. Clerget's La Suisse au xxème Renaissance in der Schweiz (Munich, 1896); while J. H. Heer in siècle (Paris, 1908), is very useful. Other works relating to Swiss his Die schweiz. Malerei des xix. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1905), has industries and commerce are T. Geering, Die Handelspolitik der printed his lectures relating to most of the best-known modern Schweiz am Ausgang des xix. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1902); Swiss painters. Many splendid series of reproductions in various E. Hofmann, Die Schweiz als Industrieslaat (Zürich, 1902); and departments of Swiss art have appeared, two of the most striking H. Wartmann, Industrie und Handel der Schweiz im xix. Jahrhundert being the three series of Handzeichnungen schweizerischer Meister (Bern, 1902). The following are historical monographs as to some des xv.-xviii. Jahrhunderts (Basel, from 1904); and the Kunstdenkof the principal Swiss industries: A. Bürkli-Meyer, Die Geschichte mäler der Schweiz (2nd series, Geneva, from 1901), to which we may der züricherischen Seidenindustrie (Zürich, 1894); H. Lehmann, add R. Anheisser's Altschweizerische Baukunst (Bern, 1906-1907): Die aargauische Strokindustrie (Aarau, 1896); and A. Steinmann, R. Hinderer, Alte schweizer Bauweise (Frankfort, 1907); and the Die ostschweizerische Stickerei-Industrie (Zürich, 1995); while the four series (Bern, 1883-1887) of E. von Rodt's Kunstgeschichtliche following deal rather with local centres of industry: H. Wartmann, Denkmäler der Schweiz. The most artistic and accurate reproIndustrie und Handel des Kantons St Gallen auf 1866 (St Gall, 1870, ductions of Swiss costumes are the thirty-six coloured plates, besides many reports as to local industry, 1708 to 1890); T. Geering, drawn after originals, published by Fr. Julie Heierli (Zürich, 1897, Handel und Industrie der Stadt Basel (Basel, 1886); A. Bachelin, sqq.), under the title of Die schweizer Trachten vom xvii.-xix. L'Horlogerie neuchâteloise (Neuchâtel, 1888); and A. Pfleghart, Die Jahrhundert. schweizerische Uhrenindustrie (Leipzig, 1908). A full technical and well-illustrated description of some of the chief industrial establishments in Switzerland is given in Die industrielle und kommerzielle Schweiz beim Eintritt ins xx. Jahrhundert (Zürich, since 1900); while B. de Cérenville's Le Système continental et la Suisse, 1803-1813 (Lausanne, 1906) treats of an interesting period in Swiss commercial history. Swiss mercantile law is expounded in A. Curti's Schweizerisches Handelsrecht (Zürich, 1903). For purely financial matters the Finanz Jahrbuch (Bern, from 1899), contains much information of the latest date; while H. Ernst's Eine schweizer ische Bundesbank (Winterthur, 1904) sketches the foundation of the Swiss National Bank that was successfully launched in 1907. G. Schanz's Die Steuern der Schweiz (5 vols., Stuttgart, 1890) is a remarkably complete and instructive work; while the later book by J. Steiger, Grundzüge des Finanzhaushaltes der Kantone und Gemeinden (2 vols., Bern, 1903), is specially devoted to taxes levied by the cantons and the communes, and is of the greatest utility in studying a very complicated subject. E. Naef's Tabakmonopol und Biersteuer (Zürich, 1903), treats of two special sources of revenue in the Swiss financial system. The history of the Swiss coinage is admirably narrated, with many fine illustrations, by L. Coraggioni, in his Münzgeschichte der Schweiz (Geneva, 1896), and is the chief authority on Swiss numismatics in general. As to the fine arts, the best general work on medieval Swiss architecture is J. R. Rahn's Geschichte der bildenden Künste in der, Schweiz (Zürich, 1876). The same author has also collected various of his art essays in his Kunst- und Wanderstudien in der Schweiz (Vienna, 1883), while he has described (alone or with the help of others) the chief art monuments in the various Swiss cantonsthese notices appeared in the Anzeiger für schweiz. Alterthumskunde (Zürich, from 1868), and for the cantons of Soleure, Ticino, Thurgau and Unterwalden, form appendices which are really art monographs. An older and more special work on the same subject is J. D. Blavignac's Histoire de l'architecture sacrée du ivème au xe siècle dans les anciens évêchés de Genève, Lausanne, et Sion (Geneva, 1853). There are two general books on the special subject of Swiss castlesMme de Montmolier's Les Châteaux suisses (1816-1823, new ed., later); and F. Küpfer's Burgen und Schlösser der Schweis (n.d.). Many have now special monographs; so Habsburg (1896) and Lensburg (1904), both by W. Merz, whose later work Die mittelalterlichen Burganlagen und Wehrbauten des Kantons Aargau (2 vols., Aarau, 1906) is a very complete treatise on the most castellated region of the country. For the Bernese castles we have E. L. C. Eden b. History.-The great collection (officially published in 32 vols., 1858-1905) entitled Amtliche Sammlung der ältern eidgenössischen Abschiede contains all the recesses of the Diet, &c., from 1245 to 1848, and is absolutely indispensable. A series of selected extracts from chroniclers, documents, &c., is given in W. Oechsli's Quellenbuch zur Schweizergeschichte (2 vols. 2nd ed. of vol. i. 1901, and 1st ed. of vol. ii., Zürich, 1893). The texts (with short introductions) of all the Federal Constitutions from 1798 onwards are conveniently collected in S. Kaiser and J. Strickler's Geschichte und Texte der Bundesverfassungen der schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft von 1798 bis zur Gegenwart (Bern, 1901). The texts of the early alliances (12911513) are reprinted in J. von Ah's Die Bundesbriefe der alten Eidge nossen (Einsiedeln, 1891), while a commentary on all the Federal Constitutions from 1291 (with reprints of certain texts) is furnished by C. Hilty in his Die Bundesverfassungen der schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft (Bern, 1891; also in French). For more recent documents and laws see the Amtliche Sammlung der Bundesgesetze (from 1849 onwards), which are conveniently arranged and classified by P. Wolf in his Die schweizerische Bundesgesetzgebung (2nd ed., 3 vols., Basel, 1905-1908). G. von Wyss's Geschichte der Historiographie in der Schweiz (Zürich, 1895) is an admirable guide to the works and lives of all Swiss historians up to about 1850, while all articles (published in Swiss periodicals from 1812 to 1900) relating to the subject are most carefully indexed and classified in J. L. Brandstetter and H. Barth's Repertorium über die in Zeit- und Sammelschriften enthaltenen Aufsätze und Mitteilunger schweizergeschichtlichen Inhaltes (2 vols., Basel, 1892 and 1906). The latest revised texts of the Federal Constitution and (often) of the cantonal constitutions can be procured separately, but the last official collection of all in one volume dates from 1891 (Recueil des constitutions fédérales et cantonales), since which time many changes have been made. These can generally be discovered, and much valuable present-day knowledge of Swiss matters gained, in C. Hilty's Politisches Jahrbuch der schweizer. Eidgenossenschaft (published at Bern annually since 1886). The best general recent histories are J. Dierauer, Geschichte der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (3 vols., up to 1648, Zürich, 18871907 to be continued), which gives in detail the original authorities and the statements of modern writers for every point; W. D. McCrackan, The Rise of the Swiss Republic (2nd ed., New York, 1901), and B. van Muyden, Histoire de la nation suisse (3 vols., Lausanne, 18961899). Some of the older histories (such as those of Daguet and Dändliker) may still be consulted with advantage, while W. Occhsli's SWITZERLAND Curti's Die schweizer. Volksrechte (Bern, 1900) touch on special sides of the subject. See, too, COMMUNE (Swiss) and REFERENDUM AND INITIATIVE. Many of the older works are still worth consulting, such as those by Snell (1839-1844), Stettler (1847), Ullmer (18621866), Pfaff (1870), Bluntschli (2nd ed., 1875), Meyer (1875-1878), 1891; vols. ii. and iii., 1880-1887). There are also useful articles in Furrer's and Reichesberg's dictionaries. J. J. Blumer's StaatsDubs (1878), Orelli (1885), and Blumer (latest ed., vol. i., und Rechtsgeschichte der schweiz. Demokratieen (2 vols., St Gall, 18501858) deals collectively with the old democratic cantons-Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Glarus, Zug and Appenzell-and is stil very useful for local history; the special works as to the constitutional history of other cantons are mentioned in the articles relating to them. A general theoretical work on federal constitutions in general is L. le Fur's Etat Fédéral et Confédération d'états (Paris, 1896), vol. i. of a new German edition of which (prepared by the author with the help of P. Posener) appeared at Breslau in 1902; this is more up to date than E. A. Freeman's Federal Government (new ed. of vol. i., London, 1893), or than J. B. Westerkamp's Staatenbund und Bundesstaat (Leipzig, 1900). Lehrbuch für den Geschichtsunterricht in der Sekundärschule (Zürich, | H. Ryffel's Die schweizer. Landsgemeinden (Zürich, 1904) and T. (BIBLIOGRAPHY 1885), is very accurate and handy. Far more popular in style than any yet mentioned are J. Sutz's Schweizer-Geschichte für das Volk erzählt (La Chaux de Fonds, 1899), and A. Gobat, Histoire de la Suisse racontée au peuple (Neuchâtel, 1900). A very attractive summary (including social and economical history) is given in H. Vulliéty's La Suisse à travers les âges (Basel and Geneva, 1901). J. Heierli's Urgeschichte der Schweiz (Zürich, 1901) has superseded all earlier works (such as Heer) on prehistoric Switzerland. The authentic early history of the Confederation (see also TELL, TSCHUDI, and WINKELRIED) is admirably told in W. Oechsli's Die Anfänge der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Zürich, 1891, also in French), as well as in the older work by A. Rilliet, Les Origines de la confédération suisse (2nd ed., Geneva and Basel, 1869). For the earlier medieval history (1273-1334) J. E. Kopp's Geschichte der eidgenössischen Bünde (5 vols., Leipzig, Lucerne and Basel, 1845-1882) is a perfect storehouse of information, while the medieval political Swiss system in relation to the empire has been very clearly described by W. Oechsli in his article (published in vol. v., 1890, of Hilty's Politisches Jahrbuch) "Die Beziehungen der schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft zum Reiche bis zum Schwabenkrieg, 1499," while the same writer's article (published in vol. xiii., 1888, of the Jahrbuch für schweizerische Geschichte)" Orte und Zugewandte," gives an admirable account of the relations of many small districts and towns to the Swiss Confederation, as "allies," from the earliest times to 1798. The two following works trace certain phenomena throughout Swiss history -P. Schweizer, Geschichte der schweizerischen Neutralität (Frauenfeld, 1895), and J. Schollenberger, Geschichte der schweizer. Politik (2 vols., Frauenfeld, 1906 and 1908). As to the more recent history of Switzerland (since 1798) see, besides various articles in Hilty's Jahrbuch, C. Hilty, Offentliche Vorlesungen über die Helvetik (Bern, 1878); W. Oechsli, Geschichte der Schweiz im xix. Jahrhundert (vol. i., Leipzig, 1903, extends from 1798 to 1813); F. Burckhardt, Die schweizerische Emigration, 1798-1901 (Basel, 1908); B. van Muyden, La Suisse sous le pacte de 1815 (2 vols., 1815-1838, Lausanne, 1890-1891); G. H. Dufour, Der Sonderbunds-Krieg und die Ereignisse von 1856 in Neuenburg (Basel, 1876; also in French, Paris, 1876); G. Grote, Seven Letters concerning the Politics of Switzerland (1847, enlarged ed., London, 1876); T. Curti, Die schweizerischen Volksrechte, 1848-1900 (Bern, 1900); J. Schollenberger, Die Schweiz seit 1848 (Berlin, 1908); and the blue-book (London, 1848) entitled Correspondence Relative to the Affairs of Switzerland, with the following volumes of memoirs by Swiss statesmen: A. P. Segesser, Fünf und vierzig Jahre im luzernischen Staatsdienst, 1841-1887 (Bern, 1887); J. C. Kern, Souvenirs politiques, 1838-1883 (Bern, 1887); and Numa Droz, Etudes et portraits politiques (Geneva, 1895), as well as lives of others. For the history of Switzerland in the 19th century see T. Curti, Geschichte der Schweiz im xix. Jahrhundert (Neuchâtel, 1902), and the work entitled La Suisse au xixme siècle (3 vols., Lausanne, 1899-1900; also issued in German). The following works are very useful for various departments of Swiss history: Genealogisches Handbuch zur schweizer Geschichte (in course of publication since 1900 at Zürich); P. Ganz, Geschichte der heraldischen Kunst in der Schweiz im xii. and xiii. Jahrhundert (Frauenfeld, 1899); E. Schulthess, Die Städte- und Landes-Siegel der Schweiz (Zürich, 1853); P. Küpfer's Armorial des villes suisses (120 shields, Basel, 1885); A. Gautier, Les Armoiries et les couleurs de la confédération et des cantons suisses (2nd ed., Geneva and Basel, 1879); and L. Tobler's Schweizerische Volkslieder (2 vols., Frauenfeld, 1882-1884; many historical ballads, texts with introductions). The best historical atlas is the Historisch-geographischer Atlas der Schweiz by J. C. Vögelin, G. Meyer von Knonau and G. von Wyss (new ed., Zürich, 1870), while L. Poirier-Delay and F. Müllhaupt's Historischer Atlas der Schweiz (Bern, 1898), and J. S. Gerster's small maps (Zürich, 1886) are also useful. There is a set of small Swiss historical maps in one sheet (No. 25) in Droysen's Allgemeiner historischer Atlas (Bielefeld, 1886), and a single general one (No. 44) in R. L. Poole's Historical Atlas of Modern Europe (Oxford, 1902). For the pre-1798 constitution of Switzerland see J. Simler, De Helvetiae republica (Zürich 1576; also in German and French), and Abraham Stanyan's An Account of Switzerland (London, 1714). The best and most recent works on the existing Swiss constitution of 1874 and its history are the large volume by W. Burckhardt, Kommentar der schweiz. Bundesverfassung von 1874 (Bern, 1905), and the smaller one by J. Schollenberger, Bundesverfassung der Schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft. Kommentar mit Einleitung (Berlin, 1905), while the same author's Das Bundesstaatsrecht der schweiz, Geschichte und System (Berlin, 1902) and his Grundriss der Staatsund Verwaltungsrechts der schweiz. Kantone (2 vols., Zürich, 18981899) are clear, and, especially the last-named, very useful as to cantonal matters. In English there is nothing better than J. M. Vincent's Government in Switzerland (New York and London, 1900), for the work by F. O. Adams and C. D. Cunningham is not very satisfactory, though better in its French edition (Basel and Geneva, 1890) than in its original English shape (London, 1889). The decisions of the Swiss Federal Tribunal as to Swiss constitutional law are collected (up to the end of 1902) in L. R. von Salis's Schweizerisches Bundesrecht (2nd ed., 5 vols., Bern, 1903-1904), while Switzerland before the Reformation, though monographs abound, There is no really satisfactory, general ecclesiastical history of ische Kirchengeschichte (Stans, from 1907). E. E. Gelpke's Kirchenand much material has been collected in the Zeitschrift für Schweizergeschichte der Schweiz (2 vols., Bern, 1856-1861) is now out of date, and only includes the carly portion of the period (it is written from a Protestant standpoint), while vol. ii. of B. Fleischlin's Studien und Beiträge zur schweizer. Kirchengeschichte (Lucerne, 1902-1903) includes the period 800 to 1520, but is written from a strong Romanist point of view. history consult E. Egli's Die christlichen Inschriften der Schweiz von iv-ix. Jahrhundert (Zürich, 1895), and his Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz bis auf Karl den Grossen (Zürich, 1893); S. Guyer, As to the early (Leipzig, 1907); A. Lütolf, Die Glaubensboten der Schweis Die christlichen Denkmäler des ersten Jahrtausends in der Schweiz vor St Gallus (Lucerne, 1871); and E. F. Gelpke, Die christliche Sagengeschichte der Schweiz (Bern, 1862). As to the medieval saints in Switzerland see E. A. Stückelberg, Geschichte der Reliquien in der Schweiz (2 vols., Zürich and Basel, 1902 and 1908), and his Die schweiz. Heiligen des Mittelalters (Zürich, 1903), and J. Genoud's Les Saints de la Suisse française (new ed., 2 vols., Fribourg, 1897). For the documentary history of some of the medieval Swiss dioceses see Regesta episcoporum constantiensium, edited by P. Ladewig and T. Müller (2 vols., from 596 to 1383, as yet published, Innsbruck, 1895 and 1905); M. Besson, Recherches sur les origines des évêchés de Genève, Lausanne, et Sion (Fribourg, 1906), and L. Stouff, Le Pouvoir temporal des évêques de Bâle (2 vols., Paris, 1891). E. E. von Mülinen's Helvetia sacra (2 vols., Bern, 1858 and 1861) gives the succession of the various bishops, abbots, provosts, &c., but we have Die Regesien der Archive in der schweiz. Eidgenossenschaft (edited by T. von Mohr; 2 vols., Coire, 1851-1854), though it refers requires bringing up to date. For the medieval Swiss monasteries only to a few monasteries, for which it is indispensable, while Arnold Nüscheler's Die Gotteshäuser der Schweiz (3 pts., Zürich, 1864-1873, continued by the author and others in the Geschichtsfreund and Argovia, complete index issued as an appendix to the Anzeiger für schweizerische Geschichte, 1900) is most valuable and useful. Some of the great monasteries have histories of their own, such as Einsie deln (q.v.), Engelberg (q.v.), and Muri, the last by Pater M. Kiem, Geschichte der Benedictiner-Abtei Muri (2 vols., Stans, 1888 and 1891). Two monographs may be mentioned: R. G. Bindschedler, Kirchliches Asylrecht und Freistellen in der Schweiz (Stuttgart, 1906), and Augusta Steinberg, Studien zur Geschichte der Juden in der Schweis während des Mittelalters (Zürich, 1903). For the Reformation and later times consult (on the Protestant side), besides biographies, &c., of Calvin and Zwingli (qq. v.), E. Bloesch, Geschichte der schweizerischreformierten Kirchen (2 vols., Bern, 1898-1899); and W. Hadorn, Geschichte des Pietismus in der schweiz. reform. Kirchen (Constance, 1901), and the same author's Kirchengeschichte der reformierten Schweiz (since 1906). F. Meyer's work, Die evangelische Gemeinde in Locarno (2 vols., Zürich, 1836), treats of an important event of that period. The Romanist standpoint is presented in vols. iii. and iv. (1904 sqq.) of Fleischlin's work mentioned above, and also in J. G. Mayer's Das Consil von Trient und die Gegenreformation in der Schweiz (2 vols., Stans, 1901 and 1903). tutional side, is C. Gareis and P. Zorn, Staat und Kirche in der Schweis (2 vols., Zürich, 1877-1878), which tells the story down to the date For more modern days the best book, especially from the constiof publication. Special subjects are treated of in M. Kothing, Die Bisthumsverhandlungen der schweizerisch-konstansischen Diözesan stände von 1803-1862 (Schwyz, 1863); F. Troxler, Der Kulturkampf von 1863-1888 (Bienne, 1889); Ch. Woeste, Histoire du Culturkampf Gschwind, Geschichte der Entstehung der christkatholischen Kirche der Schweiz (vol. i. appeared at Basel in 1904). The work by A. en Suisse, 1871-1886 (Brussels, 1887, Romanist work); and P Büchi entitled Die katholische Kirche in der Schweiz (Munich, 1902) gives a full and authorized account of the present state of the Roman Catholic Church in Switzerland. separate articles. at the last moment a sudden blaze of light surrounded the king, and when it cleared away he had disappeared. King Olaf is one of the same company as Charlemagne, King Arthur and Sebastian of Portugal-the legendary heroic figures in whose death the people would not believe, and whose return was looked for. See the Heims-Kringla, in the Saga Library, trans. by W. Morris and E. Magmússon (1893) and the Saga of King Olaf Tryggwason, (D. H.) trans. by J. Sephton (1895). c. Literature. For the Swiss medieval Minnesingers see Karl Bartsch, Die schweizer Minnèsänger (Frauenfeld, 1887, texts, with introductions); and for popular ballads, historical or not, L. Tobler, Schweizerische Volkslieder (2 vols., Frauenfeld, 1882-1884, texts, with notes and introductions). In general consult J. Bachtold, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur in der Schweiz (Frauenfeld, 1892); E. H. Gaullicur, Études sur l'histoire littéraire de la Suisse française, particulièrement dans la seconde moitié du xving, sodas, 1850) P. Godet, Histoire littéraire de la Suisse romande (2nd ed., Neuchâtel and Paris, 1895): H. E. Jenny. Die Alpendichtung der deutschen Schweiz (Bern, 1905); J. C. Morikofer, Die schweizerische Literatur SWORD (O. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European des xviii. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1861); F. Rausch, Geschichte der root meaning to wound), a general term for a hand weapon of Literatur des rhato-romanischen Volkes (Frankfort-on-the-Main, metal, characterized by a longish blade, and thus distinct from 1870); Virgile Rossel, Histoire littéraire de la Suisse romande (2 vols., Geneva and Paris, 1889-1891); R. Weber, Die poetische National all missile weapons on the one hand, and on the other hand from literatur der deutschen Schweiz (3 vols., Glarus, 1866-1867). For the staff weapons-the pike, bill, halberd and the like-in which more recent Swiss writers see the literary sections of the work the metal head or blade occupies only a fraction of the effective entitled La Suisse au xixe siècle, vol ii. ch 4 (Lausanne, 1889-length. The handle of a sword provides a grip for the hand that 1900), and the biographers of the several writers noted under the wields it, or sometimes for two hands; it may add protection, (W A. B. C.) SWOLD (or SwÖLD), BATTLE OF, the most famous of the and in most patterns does so to a greater or less extent. sea-fights of the ancient Norsemen. It took place on the 9th Still it is altogether subordinate to the blade. For want of a of September 1000. The place cannot now be identified, as the metal-headed lance or axe, which indeed were of later invention, formation of the Baltic coast has been much modified in the a sharpened pole or a thin-edged paddle will serve the turn. course of subsequent centuries, partly by the gradual silting up But a sword-handle without a blade is naught; and no true swordof the sea, and partly by the storms of the 14th century. Swold blade can be made save of metal capable of taking an edge or point. 1. Historical.-There are so-called swords of wood and even was an island probably on the North German coast, near Rügen. The battle was fought between Olaf Trygvesson, king of Norway, stone to be found in collections of savage weapons. But these are really flattened clubs; and the present writer Origins and and a coalition of his enemies-Eric Hakonson, his cousin and rival; Olaf, the king of Sweden; and Sweyn Forkbeard, king of agrees with the late General Pitt-Rivers in not Early Denmark. The poets, and the poetically minded authors of the believing that such modifications of the club have Forms. sagas, who are the only authorities, have told the story with had any appreciable influence on the form or use of true swords. many circumstances of romance. But when the picturesque On this last point, however, the opinions of competent archaeodetails, which also have no doubt at least a foundation of truth, logists have been much divided. We will only remark that the are taken at their true value, the account of the battle still occurrence in objects of human handiwork of a form, or even a series of forms, intermediate between two types is not conclupresents a very trustworthy picture of the sea-fighting of the sive evidence that those forms are historical links between the Norsemen. Olaf had been during the summer in the eastern Baltic. The allies lay in wait for him at the island of Swold on different types, or that there is any historical connexion at all. his way home. The Norse king had with him seventy-one In the absence of dates fixed by external evidence this kind of vessels, but part of them belonged to an associate, Sigwald, a comparison will seldom take us beyond plausible conjecture. chief of the Jomsburg vikings, who was an agent of his enemies, A traveller who had never seen velocipedes might naturally and who deserted him. Olaf's own ships went past the anchor- suppose, on a first inspection, that the tricycle was a modification age of Eric Hakonson and his allies in a long column without of the old four-wheeled velocipede, and the bicycle a still later order, as no attack was expected. The king was in the rear of invention; but we know that in fact the order of development was quite different. the whole of his best vessels. The allies allowed the bulk of the Norse ships to pass, and then stood out to attack Olaf. He might have run past them by the use of sail and oar to escape, but with the true spirit of a Norse warrior he refused to flee, and turned to give battle with the eleven ships immediately about him. The disposition adopted was one which is found recurring in many sea-fights of the middle ages where a fleet had to fight on the defensive. Olaf lashed his ships side to side, his own-the "Long Serpent," the finest war-vessel as yet built in the north-being in the middle of the line, where her bows projected beyond the others. The advantage of this arrangement was that it left all hands free to fight, a barrier could be formed with the oars and yards, and the enemy's chance of making use of his superior numbers to attack on both sides would be, as far as possible, limited-a great point when all fighting was with the sword, or with such feeble missile weapons as bows and javelins. The Norse long ships were high in the bulwark-or, as the Greeks would have said, "cataphract." Olaf, in fact, turned his eleven ships into a floating fort. The Norse writers, who are the only authorities, gave all the credit to their own countrymen, and according to them all the intelligence of Olaf's enemies, and most of their valour, were to be found in Eric Hakonson. They say that the Danes and Swedes rushed at the front of Olaf's line without success. Eric Hakonson attacked the flank. His vessel, the "Iron Ram," was "bearded," that is to say, strengthened across the bows by bands of iron, and he forced her between the last and last but one of Olaf's line. In this way the Norse ships were carried one by one, till the "Long Serpent" alone was left. At last she too was overpowered. Olaf leapt into the sea holding his shield edgeways, so that he sank at once and the weight of his hauberk dragged him down. A legend of later days has it that XXVI It is more difficult as a matter of verbal definition to distinguish the sword from smaller hand weapons. Thus an ordinary sword is four or five times as long as an ordinary dagger: but there are long daggers and short swords; neither will the form of blade or handle afford any certain test. The real difference lies in the intended use of the weapon; we associate the sword with open combat, the dagger with a secret attack or the sudden defence opposed to it. One might say that a weapon too large to be concealed about the person cannot be called a dagger. Again, there are large knives, such as those used by the Afridis and Afghans, which can be distinguished from swords only by the greater breadth of the blade as compared with its length. Again, there are special types of arms, of which the yataghan is a good example, which in their usual forms do not look much like swords, but in others that occur must be classed as varieties of the sword, unless we keep them separate by a more or less artificial theory, referring the type as a whole to a different origin. Of the actual origin of swords we have no direct evidence. Neither does the English word nor, so far as we are aware, any of the equivalent words in other languages, Aryan or otherwise, throw any light on the matter. Daggers shaped from reindeer antlers occur among the earliest relics of man, and there are flint daggers of the Neolithic period, which may be supposed to have been the model for the first hand weapons made of copper. Bronze took the place of copper about 2000 B.C., and the transition from bronze to iron is assigned to the period from 1000 to 700 B.C. Whatever may be the further discoveries of archaeologists, we know that swords are found from the earliest As to the overlapping of the bronze and iron ages in the Homeric poems, see Burrows, The Discoveries in Crete (1907), p. 214. As to Britain, O. Montelius in Archaeologia, 61, pp. 155-6; Cowper, Art of Attack, 124 sqq. (Ulverston, 1906). |