Technical

authorities hesitated to commit themselves to any definite educa- | and it was thought that sufficient funds for educational purposes tional schemes. Indeed, it was seriously doubted whether such a might be obtained from other sources. A scheme for the windfall was likely to be made a permanent annual contribution utilization of a fairly large income arising from the City parochial from the state to the purposes of technical education. But charities had been under the consideration of the Charity gradually small sums were provisionally voted in aid of existing Commissioners. It was first published in 1888, and, after schools; and when the then Chancellor of the Exchequer some discussion and modification, was sanctioned by parliadeclared that, if the whisky money (as it was commonly ment. According to that scheme a capital sum of about called) were found to be well and carefully expended, no future £150,000, supplemented by a like amount obtained from the Chancellor would be able to divert it to any other purpose, City companies and other sources, was made available for the local authorities began to consider how the money that had building of technical and recreative institutions for the poorer fallen into their hands might be best employed to meet local classes of the working population of London, similar to the educational needs. Special committees were accordingly Polytechnic in Regent Street and the People's Palace in Mile formed, consisting in many cases not only of members of the End Road. The scheme created a central governing body for county or county borough council, but also of other persons the general supervision of these institutions, and placed at its versed in educational matters, to whom the prepara- disposal an income of about £50,000 available for educational Instruc tion of schemes of instruction suitable to the several purposes, which, with the falling-in of leases, was certain to tion com districts was referred. The committees so conincrease. Provision for the endowment of eight polytechnics mittees. stituted, known as technical instruction committees, and of other educational institutions was made in the scheme, were established in different parts of the country, and to these and the Goldsmiths' Company undertook to erect and maintain bodies was delegated, subject to periodic reports to the council, from its corporate funds a ninth, which has since been presented the responsibility of dealing with the moneys at their disposal. by the Company to the University of London, and under the The technical instruction committees proceeded in nearly all name of the Goldsmiths' College is used mainly as a school for cases to elect as secretary a gentleman of scholarly attainments the training of teachers. Since then other similar but someand educational experience, capable of advising as to the what smaller institutions have been established. organization of schools and classes in accordance with the terms of the act and the special requirements of the district. As a result of the acts of 1889 and 1890 local educational authorities altogether distinct from school boards came into existence, each with an organizing secretary acting as educational officer for the district. The creation of these educational authorities, with functions, however, limited to technical instruction, marks the most important step in the organization of education since the establishment of school boards.

culum.

By special minutes of the Science and Art Department new subjects were from time to time included under the term Curri. "technical," and the definition of technical education was gradually widened. Among the subjects first added to the list were those included in the "programme of technological examinations" of the City and Guilds of London Institute, and the teaching of technology, as distinct from science, was thus for the first time officially recognized and aided by grants from public funds. Later, commercial subjects and modern languages, the theory and practice of agriculture, and the arts and crafts underlying various cottage industries were accepted as branches of technical instruction; and whilst, on the one hand, the definition was so widened as to include nearly all that is comprised in the curriculum of a secondary school, the teaching of certain technological subjects approached so near to trade teaching that the provision excluding "the practice of any trade or industry or employment from the teaching sanctioned by the act appeared likely to be overlooked. Practical instruction in engineering, weaving, printing, photography, plumbing, carpentry, brickwork, bookbinding and other subjects was encouraged by the City and Guilds Institute, acting as a central authority for education of a distinctly technological character; but notwithstanding the continued increase in the number of practical classes in different branches of technology, the teaching of technology as distinct from that of science and art received at this time no direct support by means of grants in aid from the state. Under the new conditions, however, of assessing the government grant, introduced into the Directory of 1901-02, instruction in technology received some form of recognition.

The county of London remained for some time behind other counties in utilizing the provisions to the Technical Instruction Schemes Act of 1889, by devoting to educational purposes the for funds placed at its disposal by the Local Taxation London. (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890. The funds applicable to London, which in the first instance amounted to about £163,000, but soon reached a total of about £200,000, were wholly employed for a period of two years in relief of the The wants of London were not at first understood;

rates.

Before the erection of these new institutions was completed it was ascertained that the annual income at the disposal of the trustees for the purposes of maintenance and equipment was altogether inadequate; and a committee of inquiry having been appointed by the London County Council, an exhaustive report on the educational needs of the metropolis was prepared, which led to the formation of a Technical Education Board for London, consisting of members of the County Council, who formed the majority of the board, and also of representatives of the City Parochial Trustees, of the City and Guilds Institute, of the School Board, and of other bodies; and to the board so constituted the council entrusted the spending of the funds available under the Local Taxation Act, 1890. The board held its first meeting on the 28th of April 1893, but ceased to have a separate existence in 1903 on the passing of the London Education Bill. During those eleven years the board, with the assistance of its organizing secretary, succeeded in arranging a comprehensive and varied scheme of nical Eduscholarships, which, among other benefits, enabled cation children from the elementary schools to continue their London. education in intermediate schools, and to pass on to the higher technical institutes and universities. It supplemented by large grants the income of the polytechnic institutions; it established or assisted in establishing new trade schools; it provided laboratories, and aided in the teaching of practical science in a large number of secondary schools; it encouraged the teaching of modern languages and commercial subjects; it assisted in founding a school of economics, which has become a constituent part of the new University of London, and utilized in nearly all instances with the best possible results the large annual income allocated by the County Council to technical education.

Work of the Tech

Board,

The close connexion between technical and secondary education was clearly indicated in the comprehensive definition of the former term given in the act. But it soon became manifest that no great progress could be made in technical educa

Connex.

secondary education.

tion unless further provision were made for secondary ion with
education and unless some improvement could be effected
in the methods adopted in secondary schools. The cry
of Matthew Arnold for the better organization of secondary educa-
tion had, so far, met with no adequate response. There was still
an insufficient supply of secondary schools, and a complete absence
of advice or control by any central authority. The urgency of this
need was recognized by the "National Association for the Pro-
motion of Technical Education," which at a meeting held in July
1889 resolved to alter its title by the addition of the words "and
Secondary" after " Technical." This verbal alteration represented
a widespread conviction that technical and secondary education
be directed towards the improvement and organization of secondary
are of necessity closely associated, and that future efforts should
education and the union of different grades and branches of educa
tion under a single government department. That the Technical

The London Act of

1903;

The Bill

of 1906.

of 1907.

Instruction Act would need to be followed by a Secondary Educa- | education in London, the Board of Education reluctantly assented tion Act was generally recognized. Accordingly, after much disto a scheme prepared by the London County Council which vested cussion, the government in the year 1896 introduced into parliament the control of education in the hands of a committee cona comprehensive measure dealing with education as a whole and sisting exclusively of members of the council with the embodying the principal recommendation of the Royal Commission addition of some women. At the municipal elections of on Secondary Education. The bill was well received, and, if the 1907 the Progressives, who had hitherto formed the government had persevered with it, would have passed into law, majority of the council, were defeated, and the Municipal and the question would have been settled for a generation. It was Reformers reversed in this respect the policy of the previous council. wrecked owing to the difficulty of satisfying the aspirations of the The Act of 1902 was strongly opposed by Nonconformists and smaller boroughs to be constituted as local education authorities. by the Liberal party generally, and at the general election of 1906 No further action was taken till 1898, when a new bill was intro- a parliament was returned pledged to effect such changes in it as duced by the government, creating a Board of Education, and would give to the local authorities a more direct control combining under one department the functions of the Education over voluntary schools. Accordingly, one of the first Department at Whitehall and of the Science and Art measures introduced was a new Education Bill, which, Creation Department at South Kensington, with certain powers after a protracted discussion, was passed by the House of Commons of Board relating to the educational work of the Charity Commis- and amended in several particulars by the Upper Chamber. The of Educa sioners. The bill was fully discussed during the recess, amendments of the Lords were rejected en bloc and the bill was tion. and in a slightly altered form it became law in the early withdrawn. In the following year some of the less contentious part of the year 1899, and came into operation in April 1900. The clauses were embodied in the Education (Administrative Provisions) Board of Education called into existence by the act thus became Bill, which received the royal assent, and among its clauses was the central authority for elementary, secondary and technological one which widened the definition of education, so as to include any instruction. Provision was made in the act for the creation of a kind of training which might be pronounced by the board to be consultative committee of educational experts to be appointed by educational in character. By an administrative act of The Act the president, whose special duty was to prepare and keep a register the board, a new department under a separate secretary, of all qualified teachers. As then constituted, the board consisted but responsible to the Minister of Education, was created of the secretary, responsible to the president for the administration for Wales, which thus, without any act of parliament, practically of both primary and secondary education, of two principal assistant acquired independent control of its educational machinery. secretaries, and of subordinate officers. An assistant secretary for The foregoing statements refer more particularly to England and secondary and another for technological instruction were appointed, Wales, to which prior to 1907 all acts of parliament dealing with both under the direction of the principal assistant secretary at the education subjects were generally applicable. In Scotland and in South Kensington branch. With a view to co-ordinating the Ireland the organization of technical instruction protechnological instruction to be carried on by the board with that ceeded on different lines. A Technical Schools Act, Scotland. undertaken by the City and Guilds of London Institute and other applicable to Scotland only, was passed in 1887. This act enabled bodies, a departmental committee was appointed in November school boards by means of the school funds to provide and maintain 1900 on which those bodies were represented. As a result of the technical schools. The act has proved to be practically inoperarecommendations of that committee arrangements were made for tive. In Scotland, however, school boards have been entrusted, co-ordinating to some extent the work of the City and Guilds with much larger powers, and possess greater influence, than in Institute with that of the Board of Education. In the regulations England. Many of the secondary schools of Scotland are under issued in 1902 for assessing the amount of state aid to be given by the direction and control of school board authorities. The residue way of grants to technical schools it was provided that the whole of the beer and spirit duties under the Local Taxation Act applicable instruction given in any school, in technology as well as in science to Scotland was much less, even relatively to the population, than and art, should be considered; formal recognition was given to in England, and was, moreover, divided directly among so many the certificates issued by the Institute, and the Examination Board different authoritics as to be in most cases of little or no real value of the Technological Department of the Institute was strengthened for educational purposes. Recently attempts have been made to by the addition of four members nominated by the Board of Educa- combine the funds distributed among different neighbouring autho tion. The teaching of science and art, as applied to specific trades rities, so as to bring them under the control of a single body for the and industries, was thus brought under the direct supervision of benefit of a larger area. In the year 1896-97 the Education Dethe central educational authority. partment of Scotland was entirely separated from that of England, and there was a consequent transfer of functions and grants from the latter to the former. By the passing of the Local Taxation (Scotland) Act, 1898, the residue grant was relieved of certain charges, and additional funds thus became available for technical education. No grants for science or art instruction are made to Scottish schools from the English Board of Education; but several of the technical schools avail themselves of the examinations of the board, and also of those of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Among the equipped technical colleges in Scotland may be mentioned the Heriot-Watt College of Edinburgh, the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, Glasgow, the Robert Gordon College, Aberdeen, and the Technical College, Dundee. These do not differ in any essential points from corresponding schools in England. The system of instruction is very similar, and among the subjects taught will be found most of those included in the Regulations of the Board of Education and in the programme of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Special attention is given in some of these schools to the teaching of the principles and practice of the different branches of textile manufacture. Manual training forms an important part of the curriculum of primary and secondary schools, and the instructions to inspectors on science teaching issued by the Scottish Education Department show a just recognition by the department of the proper methods to be adopted in the teaching of science as a part of general education. Under the Scottish system leaving certificates are awarded on the results of examinations held at the close of the ordinary school course. These examinations cause the minimum of interference with the ordinary school work. At the universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen the higher technical instruction in such subjects as engineering and naval architecture is well developed.

Unifica tion of education under Act of 1902.

It was, however, the Education Act of 1902 which freed technical education from the restriction which had prevented its natural development. For some time the opinion had been gaining strength that all grades of education should be controlled by the same local authorities. The distinction between elementary and secondary education had been bridged over by various types of higher grade schools, and the difficulty of assigning to school boards the control of elementary schools, and to municipal bodies, also popularly elected, the control of education other than elementary, was found to be almost insuperable. A comprehensive measure of reform was regarded as indispensable. This necessity was emphasized by the fact that the managers of many voluntary schools, notwithstanding the state aid which they received as government grants, found the strain almost intolerable of meeting the ever-increasing requirements of the government as regards elementary education by means of private subscriptions. The new Education Act transferred to the local authorities, acting through education committees to be constituted by schemes to be approved by the authorities at Whitehall, the functions and duties of school boards, the separate existence of which, after a life of thirty-two years, was thus terminated. The same act threw upon the rates the burden of contributing to the support of voluntary schools, which, under certain conditions of management, were placed, as regards secular instruction, entirely under the control of the local authorities. School education of all grades was thus brought under the control of the same bodies, both as regards central and local administration, and the government and local authorities were free, under certain limitations imposed by the act, to prepare schemes for elementary, secondary and technical instruction, and for the award of scholarships enabling children to proceed from the elementary schools to the universities. By this act a national and unified system of education was effected for England and Wales.

In accordance with the act, which did not apply to London, municipal bodies were expected to appoint education committees from among their members and to co-opt a certain number of persons, including some women, versed in educational matters or representing educational interest. The London County Council, which had not regarded with favour the abolition of the school boards, showed no disposition to accept the aid of persons from outside who were not directly elected to represent the ratepayers, and although in 1903 an act was passed for the direction of

Ireland remained behind Great Britain as regards facilities for technical education. Although the Technical Instruction Act (1889) applied to Ireland as well as to England and Wales, very Ireland. little use was at first made of its provisions. Moreover, the Irish share of the funds available under the Local Taxation Act is definitely allocated to intermediate education. A committee known as the Recess Committee published in 1896 some valuable and important recommendations, which led to the passing of the Agriculture and Technical Instruction (Ireland) Act of 1899. The reports of two commissions, one on manual and practical instruc tion in primary schools, and the other on intermediate education, contained suggestions which gave encouragement to the practical

teaching of technology and helped to promote a better system of | technology of which they are desirous of studying, are admitted instruction in Irish schools.

decided by the law courts that the school boards were unable | fact is slowly but surely influencing educational thought to apply the rates to the support of such schools. They were accordingly withdrawn from the sphere of elementary education, and have since been treated as schools of a secondary type. The judgment on appeal was conclusive, that the school board rates could be employed only for the provision of ele- | mentary education for children, whether in the day or evening, and this decision paved the way for the dissolution of school boards, and to the transfer of their duties and functions to the county and borough councils under the Act of 1902.

ary

As regards secondary schools proper, in their relation to technical education, it is important that the curriculum of such schools should be sufficiently varied to afford a Types of second- sound liberal and preparatory training for the different branches of professional work. It is schools. generally admitted that at least three types or departments of schools are needed-(a) the classical, (b) the mathematical, and (c) the modern language type; and that each of these divisions should contain sub-departments. The first of these varieties would be available for the general training of students wishing to enter the legal, theological or literary professions; the second for those preparing for engineering, manufacturing or agricultural pursuits; and the third would be found best fitted as a preparation for a commercial calling. These schools would correspond to some extent to the three kinds of secondary schools found in Germany, and would be available for students preparing to enter one or other of the faculties of a modern university. The organization of different types of secondary schools, and the curriculum appropriate to each, are matters which continue to occupy the attention of educational experts. In accordance with the regulations for secondary schools issued by the Board of Education in 1907, substantial grants were made to secondary schools which conformed to certain conditions as regards local control and undenominational religious instruction, or the directive influence of the board as regards curriculum and management over all such schools was strengthened. At the same time, manual training and domestic science were made essential parts of the curriculum in boys' and girls' schools respectively.

and action in Great Britain; but Germany is still ahead in the facilities afforded for higher education, and in the advantage taken of the facilities that exist. The number of students in her universities and technical high schools is still in excess of those receiving a similar training in Great Britain. The establishment, however, of local universities and the schemes for the award of scholarships adopted by local education authorities, will tend year by year to lessen this disparity. Meanwhile, Germany has relaxed none of her former efforts, but is steadily occupied in the enlargement and improvement of her educational institutions. New schools have been erected, wherever and for whatever purpose they are needed, equipped with every modern appliance for scientific investigation and research. Each professional career has its corresponding high school or university department. The economy of a wise and liberal expenditure on higher education is a recognized fact in German statecraft.

For those who are intended to occupy the highest posts in industrial life, a sound secondary education, supplemented by appropriate university training, is the best preparation. It is only in the university or tertiary grade of education that specialized or technological training for the higher industrial posts should commence. At this stage of education, general and professional teaching are more closely associated, and the names of the faculties of the new universities in the United Kingdom will in future indicate the several branches of professional work to which the different courses of university study are intended to lead. Of late there has been a marked development of distinctly technical instruction in connexion with the colleges of university rank. The error of restricting university studies to a certain limited range of subjects, which led in Germany to the establishment of technical high schools as institutions distinct from the universities, has been avoided. Engineering, in the broadest sense of the term, has been recognized as a branch of university education of the same order as medicine or law. Laboratories and workshops have for many years formed part of the equipment of the principal university colleges. In the statutes of the university of London a separate faculty is assigned to engineering, and part of the work of the polytechnic institutes is correlated with that of the reconstituted university. A survey of the field of education shows that whilst the difference between technical and general education is well marked in the primary and secondary stages, it is the function of the university to liberalize professional teaching, and to afford opportunities for specialized study and research in the higher branches of knowledge applicable to the

The demand for technical education, which originally led to the formation of the City and Guilds of London Institute, directed attention to the methods of teaching science, drawing and other subjects, and to the necessity of including science in the curriculum of all grades of schools. The methods of science teaching have been greatly improved. Experimental work has become essential, and methods of investigation and research have been applied to the teaching of a number of subjects to which formerly they would have seemed inapplic-practical work of industrial life. able. A close connexion has thus been established between the workshop and the classroom, and practical instruction is now regarded as a necessary part of general education both elementary and secondary, and as no less disciplinary than the merely literary and oral teaching it has partly superseded. This change in the school curriculum and in the methods of instruction has narrowed the true significance of the term "technical" as applied to education. By the term " technical' as commonly used is now understood technological" or "professional," and whilst technological instruction may supplement either primary or secondary education, it is necessarily distinct from either.

The conviction has been steadily gaining ground that success in manufacturing industry, in the higher walks of commerce, and in every pursuit requiring technical knowledge, depends very largely upon the thorough and complete training of those who are charged with the control of the different kinds of work in which the army of operatives are engaged. Intelligent and highly skilled workers are indispensable; but unless they are properly directed by efficient and expert officers they can effect but little. It is undoubtedly due to the careful training of the masters and leaders of industry that the Germans have achieved so large a measure of success in different technical pursuits. The recognition of this

German example.

AUTHORITIES-See Sir Philip Magnus, Industrial Education, 1888, and presidential address to education section of British Association, 1907; Schönhof, Industrial Education in France, 1888; Holzapfel, Die technischen Schulen, &c. (1897): Report of British Royal Commission on Technical Instruction, 1884, and later special reports issued by the Board of Education; annual Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education and of the United States Commissioner of Labour; Report of English Departmental Committee on the 'Royal College of Science and School of Mines.

(P. M.*)

TECK, a ducal castle in the kingdom of Württemberg, immediately to the N. of the Swabian Jura and S. of the town of Kirchheim, crowning a ridge (2544 ft.) of the same name. It was destroyed in the Peasants' War (1525).

The duchy of Teck was acquired early in the 11th century by Berthold, count of Zähringen, whose great-grandson Albert, or Adalbert, styled himself duke of Teck. In 1381 it passed both by conquest and purchase to Württemberg. The title, which had lapsed with the extinction of the Zähringen line in 1439, was revived in 1495 by the German King Maximilian I., who bestowed it upon the dukes of Württemberg. The dignity was renounced by Duke Frederick William Charles upon his elevation to the rank of king in 1806. In 1863 the title "prince of Teck" was conferred by King William I. of Württemberg upon the children of Duke Alexander of Württemberg

(1804-1885) by his morganatic marriage with Claudine, countess | battle of Put-in-Bay, when Colonel Henry Proctor began to Rhédey, ennobled as countess of Hohenstein; in 1871 Prince Francis, the eldest son of Duke Alexander, was created duke of Teck. His eldest son Adolphus (b. 1868) was in 1910 the holder of the title.