is regarded as falling in with discoveries (somewhat incomplete, | the seat of the Indiana State Normal School (1870), which had it is true) in Hungary and Bosnia. AUTHORITIES.-All the evidence is collected by T. E. Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily (Oxford, 1909), xiv. and xviii., which gives illustrations and references to the more important literature; this work supersedes all previous works on the terremare. Prof. Pigorini's article, "Le più antiche civiltà dell' Italia," in Bullettino di paletnologia italiana, xxix., is classical. See also the works of Montelius, Modestov, and Ridgeway (Early Age of Greece, vol. i.). UJ. M. M.) TERRANOVA, a town of Sicily, on the S. coast, in the province of Caltanisetta, 74 m. by rail and 41 m. direct E.S.E. of Girgenti. Pop. (1901) 22,019. The poorly built modern town contains no buildings of interest or importance; it stands on a sand-hill near the sea, with a fertile plain (the ancient Campi Geloi) to the N. of it. It has some trade but no port, only an open roadstead. It almost certainly occupies the site of the ancient Gela (q.v.). Outside it on the E. are scanty remains of a Doric temple (480-440 B.C.?) of which a single pillar only remains, which was still standing in the 18th century (height about 26 ft., lower diameter 5 ft.); here some painted decorative terracottas have been found (see Orsi in Atti del Congresso di Scienze Storiche, Rome, 1904, v. 188). Between it and the modern town the stylobate of a large temple was found in 1906. This seems to have been constructed towards the end of the 7th century B.C. on the site of a still earlier edifice. The stylobate measures 115 by 58 ft. A large number of decorative terracottas were found, among them a small helmeted head of Athena: her name recurs upon the lip of a large pithos, and it is probable that the temple was dedicated to her. There is no trace of any object that can be dated after the end of the 6th century B.C., and it is therefore probable that this temple was destroyed when the other was constructed, and that the latter also was dedicated to Athena. On the W. of the town, on the Capo Soprano, was the ancient necropolis, where many tombs of the Greek period have been discovered; the objects found, including many fine Attic vases, are partly in private collections at Terranova itself, partly in foreign museums, while the results of later excavations, including some large terracotta sarcophagi, are in the museum at Syracuse. See Orsi in Notizie degli scavi, 1901, 307; 1902, 408; 1907, 38. TERRANOVA PAUSANIA, a seaport of Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, situated on the E. coast, 14 m. S.W. of Golfo Aranci, and 72 m. E. of Sassari by rail, and in the innermost recess of the sheltered gulf of Terranova. Pop. (1901) 4348. It occupies the site of the ancient Olbia (q.v.), and until the traffic was transferred to Golfo Aranci, was the port of embarkation for Italy, as in ancient times. There is some trade in cork and charcoal. The place is low-lying and malarious. The only building of interest is the Romanesque church of S. Simplicio, once the cathedral, which as it stands dates probably from the 11th century. It was the seat of the giudici of Gallura, sent here by the Pisans in the 11th century (but probably the native giudici resided at Tempio), and of an episcopal see, united in 1506 with that of Ampurias. The name Pausania is the consequence of an error; it is a corruption of Fausiana, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia mentioned by Gregory the Great, the site of which is in reality uncertain. TERRE HAUTE, a city and the county-seat of Vigo county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the eastern bank of the Wabash river, about 186 m. S. by E. of Chicago and about 73 m. W. by S. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 30,217; (1900) 36,673, of whom 1520 were negroes and 2952 foreign-born; (1910, census) 58,157. Land area (1906), 8.25 sq. m., of which nearly one-third had been annexed since 1890 and a considerable part since 1900. It is served by the Chicago & Eastern Illinois, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Evansville & Indianapolis, the Evansville & Terre Haute, the Southern Indiana, the Vandalia and several electric interurban railways. It is finely situated on high ground 60 ft. above the river level, and has wide, well-paved streets shaded by oaks and elms. It is in 1909 a library of about 50,000 volumes, 52 instructors and Polytechnic Institute, which was founded in 1874 by Chauncey an average term enrolment of 988 students, and of the Rose Rose (1794-1877), was opened in 1883, offers courses in mechanical, electrical, civil and chemical engineering and in architecture, and in 1909 had 22 instructors and 214 students. About 4 m. W. of Terre Haute is St Mary-of-the-Woods (founded in 1840 by the Sisters of Providence, and chartered in 1846), a school for girls. The Emeline Fairbanks Memorial Library (1882) contained 30,000 volumes in 1910, housed in a building erected in 1903 by Mr Crawford Fairbanks in memory of his mother. Terre Haute's industrial and commercial importance is largely due to its proximity to the valuable coal-fields of Clay, Sullivan, Park, Vermilion, Greene and Vigo counties. The total value of its factory product in 1905 was $29,291,651; both in 1900 and in 1905 it ranked second among the manufacturing cities of the state. It is the largest distilling centre in the state and one of the largest in the country, the value of the output of this industry in 1905 being more than half the total value of the city's factory product for the year. The value of the glass product in 1905 was 4.4 per cent. of the value of all factory products of the city, and 1-6 per cent. of the value of all glass manufactured in the United States. The first settlers at Terre Haute built their cabins near Fort Harrison, which was erected by command of Governor William Henry Harrison in the winter of 1810-11. In 1812 the fort was successfully defended against an attack of the Indians by its commandant Captain Zachary Taylor, and in 1817 was abandoned. After the close of the War of 1812 the town grew rapidly and became an important commercial centre, owing to its river connexions and to the fact that the National (or Cumberland) Road crossed the Wabash here. Terre Haute was incorporated as a town in 1838, became a city in 1853 (under a general state law of June 1852), received a special city charter in 1899, in 1905 was organized as a city of the third class, and became a city of the second class in 1909. TERRELL, a city of Kaufman county, Texas, U.S.A., about 32 m. E. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 2988; (1900) 6330 (1517 negroes); (1910) 7050. Terrell is served by the Texas & Pacific and the Texas Midland railways. The city is the seat of Wesley College (Methodist Episcopal, South), until 1909 the North Texas University School, and of the North Texas Hospital for the Insane (1885), and has a Carnegie library. It is situated in a rich farming region. The city has a cotton compress and cotton-gins, and various manufactures. The Texas Midland railway has shops and general offices here. Terrell, named in honour of Robert A. Terrell, an early settler, was founded in 1872 and was chartered as a city in 1874. TERRISS, WILLIAM (1847-1897), English actor, whose real name was William Charles James Lewin, was born in London on the 20th of February 1847. After trying the merchant service, medicine, sheep-farming in the Falkland Isles, and tea-planting in Bengal, in 1867 he took to the stage, for which his handsome presence, fine voice and gallant bearing eminently fitted him. His first appearance in London was as Lord Cloudrays in Robertson's Society, at the old Prince of Wales's theatre. He quickly came into favour in "hero" parts, and appeared at the principal London theatres from 1868 onwards. In 1880 he joined Irving's company at the Lyceum, playing such parts as Cassio and Mercutio, and in 1885 he acted there with Mary Anderson, as Romeo to her Juliet, &c. He was then engaged to take the leading parts in Adelphi melodrama, and it was in this capacity that for the rest of his career he was best known, though he occasionally acted elsewhere, notably with Irving at the Lyceum. His last appearance was in Secret Service. On the 16th of December 1897, as he was entering the Adelphi theatre, he was stabbed to death by a madman, Richard Arthur Prince. Terriss married Miss Isabel Lewis, and his daughter Ellaline Terriss (Mrs Seymour Hicks) became a well-known actress in musical comedy, in association with her husband Edward Seymour Hicks (b. 1871), proprietor of the | guished on the English stage than herself; and her brother Aldwych and Hicks theatres in London. Fred Terry (b. 1865) also became a leading actor, and a successful manager in association with his wife, the actress Julia Neilson. See Arthur J. Smythe, The Life of William Terriss (London, 1898). TERRY, EDWARD O'CONNOR (1844- ), English actor, was born in London, and began his stage career in a small and struggling way in the provinces. Between 1868 and 1875 he was the leading comedian at the Strand theatre, London, but it was not till he joined Hollingshead's company at the Gaiety in 1876 that he became a public favourite in the burlesques produced there during the next eight years. With Nellie Farren, Kate Vaughan and Royce, he made the fortune of this house, his eccentric acting and singing creating a style which had many imitators. In 1887 he went into management, opening Terry's theatre, where his production of Pinero's Sweet Lavender was a great success. But in subsequent years he was only occasionally scen at his own theatre, and made many tours in the provinces and in Australia, America and South Africa. Off the stage he was well known as an ardent Freemason, and an indefatigable member of the councils of many charities and of public bodies. See Charles Hiatt, Ellen Terry and her Impersonations (1898); Clement Scott, Ellen Terry. TERSTEEGEN, GERHARD (1697-1769), German religious writer, was born on the 25th of November 1697, at Mörs, at that time the capital of a countship belonging to the house of Orange-Nassau (it fell to Prussia in 1702), which formed a Protestant enclave in the midst of a Catholic country. After being educated at the gymnasium of his native town, Tersteegen was for some years apprenticed to a merchant. He soon came under the influence of Wilhelm Hoffman, a pietistic revivalist, and devoted himself to writing and public speaking, withdrawing in 1728 from all secular pursuits and giving himself entirely to religious work. His writings include a collection of hymns (Das geistliche Blumengärtlein, 1729; new edition, Stuttgart, 1868), a volume of Gebete, and another of Briefe, besides translations of the writings of the French mystics. He died at Mühlheim in Westphalia on the 3rd of April 1769. See HYMNS, and the article by Eduard Simons in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie, vol. xix. (ed. 1907). 8th century. The Confraternity Book of Durham is extant and embraces some 20,000 names in the course of eight centuries. Emperors and kings and the most illustrious men in church and state were commonly confraters of one or other of the great Benedictine abbeys. (On this subject see article by Edmund Bishop in Downside Review, 1885.) The confraters and consorors were made partakers in all the religious exercises and other good works of the community to which they were affiliated, and they were expected in return to protect and forward its interests; but they were not called upon to follow any special rule of life. TERRY, ELLEN ALICIA (1848- ), English actress, was born at Coventry on the 27th of February 1848. Her parents were well-known provincial actors, and her sisters Kate, TERTIARIES (Lat. tertiarii, from tertius, third), associations Marion and Florence, and her brother Fred, all joined the of lay folk in connexion with the Mendicant Orders. The old theatrical profession, and her own first appearance on the stage monastic orders had had attached to their abbeys confraterwas made on the 28th of April 1856, under the Keans' manage-nities of lay men and women, going back in some cases to the ment, as the boy Mamilius in The Winter's Tale, at the Princess's theatre, London. Two years later she played Prince Arthur in King John with such grace as to win high praise. From 1860 to 1863 and again from 1867 to 1868 she acted with various stock companies. During this period she played, on the 26th of December 1867, for the first time with Henry Irving, being cast as Katharine to his Petruchio in Garrick's version of The Taming of the Shrew at the Queen's theatre. When quite a girl she married G. F. Watts the painter, but the marriage was soon dissolved. Between 1868 and 1874, having married E. A. Wardell, an actor whose professional name was Charles Kelly, she was again absent from the stage, but she reappeared in leading parts at the Queen's theatre under Charles Reade's management. On the 17th of April 1875 she played Portia for the first time in an elaborate revival of The Merchant of Venice under the Bancrofts' management at the old Prince of Wales's theatre. This was followed by a succession of smaller triumphs at the Court theatre, culminating in her beautiful impersonation of Olivia in W. G. Wills's dramatic version of Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield, in 1878, the result of which was her engagement by Henry Irving as his leading lady for the Lyceum theatre, and the beginning of a long artistic partnership, in the success of which Miss Terry's attractive personality played a large part. Her Shakespearean impersonations at the Lyceum were Ophelia in 1878, Portia in 1879, Desdemona in 1881, Juliet and Beatrice in 1882, Viola in 1884, Lady Macbeth in 1888, Katherine, in Henry VIII., and Cordelia in 1892, Imogen in 1806, and Volumnia, in Coriolanus, in 1901. Other notable performances were those of the Queen in Wills's Charles I. in 1879, Camma in Tennyson's The Cup in 1881, Margaret in Wills's Faust in 1885, and the title-part in Charles Reade's one-act play Nance Oldfield (1893), Rosamund in Tennyson's Becket (1893), Madame Sans-Gêne in Sardou's play (1897), and Clarisse in Robespierre (1899). With the Lyceum company she several times visited the United States. In 1902, while still acting with Sir Henry Irving, she appeared with Mrs Kendal in Beerbohm Tree's revival of The Merry Wives of Windsor, at His Majesty's theatre, and she continued, after Sir Henry Irving's death, to act at different theatres, notably at the Court theatre (1905) in some of G. Bernard Shaw's plays. In 1906 her stage-jubilee was celebrated in London with much enthusiasm, a popular subscription in England and America resulting in some £8000 being raised. In 1907 Miss Terry married James Carew, an American actor. Her sister Marion Terry (b. 1856) became only less distin Although something of the kind existed among the Humiliati in the 12th century, the institution of Tertiaries arose out of the Franciscan movement. It seems to be certain that St Francis at the beginning had no intention of forming his disciples into an Order, but only of making a great brotherhood of all those who were prepared to carry out in their lives certain of the greater and more arduous of the maxims of the Gospel. The formation of the Franciscan Order was necessitated by the success of the movement and the wonderful rapidity with which it spread. When the immediate disciples of the saint had become an order bound by the religious vows, it became necessary to provide for the great body of laity, married men and women, who could not leave the world or abandon their avocations, but still were part of the Franciscan movement and desired to carry out in their lives its spirit and teaching. And so, probably in 1221, St Francis drew up a Rule for those of his followers who were debarred from being members of the order of Friars Minor. At first they were called "Brothers and Sisters of the Order of Penance"; but later on, when the Friars were called the "First Order" and the nuns the "Second Order," the Order of Penance became the "Third Order of St Francis "-whence the name Tertiaries: this threefold division already existed among the Humiliati. In 1901 Paul Sabatier published a "Rule of Life of the Brothers and Sisters of Penance," which probably contains, with additions, the substance of the original Rule of 1221. It prescribes severe simplicity of dress and of life, and certain abstinences and prayers and other religious exercises, and forbids the frequentation of the theatre, the bearing of arms and the taking of oaths except when administered by magistrates. In 1289 Nicholas IV. approved the Third Order by a Bull, but made some alterations in the Rule, and this form of the Rule remained in force until our own day. Immediately on its establishment in 1221 the Third Order spread with incredible rapidity all over Italy and throughout western Europe, and embraced multitudes of men and women of all ranks from highest to lowest. Everywhere it was connected closely with the First Order, and was under the control of the Friars Minor. In time a tendency set in for members of the Third Order to live together in community, and in this way congregations were formed who took the usual religious vows and lived a fully organized religious life based on the Rule of the Third Order with supplementary regulations. These congregations are the "Regular Tertiaries as distinguished from the "Secular Tertiaries," who lived in the world, according to the original idea. The Regular Tertiaries are in the full technical sense "religious," and there have been, and are, many congregations of them, both of men and of women. There can be little doubt, whatever counter claims may be set up, that the Third Order was one of St Francis' creations, and that his Third Order was the exemplar after which the others were fashioned; but at an early date the other Mendicant Orders formed Third Orders on the same lines, and so there came into being Dominican Tertiaries, and Carmelite, and Augustinian, and Servite, and also Premonstratensian and many others. These followed the same lines of development as the Franciscan Tertiaries, and for the most part divided into the two branches of regular and secular Tertiaries, The Rules of the various Third Orders have proved very adaptable to the needs of modern congregations devoted to active works of charity; and so a great number of teaching and nursing congregations of women belong to one or other of the Third Orders. The Franciscan Third Order has always been the principal one, and it received a great impetus and a renewed vogue from Leo XIII., who in 1883 caused the Rule to be recast and made more suitable for the requirements of devout men and women at the present day. In consequence it is estimated that the number of lay Franciscan Tertiaries now exceeds two millions. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-The most serviceable authority on the Franciscan Tertiaries is probably Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1907), ii. §§ 103, 104, 105, where an ample bibliography is supplied, The same work gives information on the other Tertiaries at the end of the sections on the various Orders. Similarly information will be found in Helyot, Histoire des Ordres religieux (1714), after the chapters on the different Orders. Heimbucher names Tachy, Les Tiers Ordres (1897), and Adderley and Marson, Third Orders (1902). (E. C. B.) TERTIARY, in geology, the time-division which includes the Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene periods, in other words, it is the earlier portion of the Cainozoic era. By some authorities the term Tertiary is made to embrace in addition to the foregoing periods those of the Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene), i.e. "Tertiary" is made the equivalent of Cainozoic. On logical grounds there is much in favour of this interpretation; but having in view the state of geological literature, it is certainly better to restrict the use of the term in the manner indicated above. Tertiary rocks were among the latest to receive the careful attention of geologists, and the name was introduced by G. Cuvier and H. Brongniart in 1810 (Essai sur la géographie minéralogique des environs de Paris, 1810-11, 1st ed.). Deshayes (1830) worked out the percentages of recent fossils found at several horizons in those strata, and upon this Sir C. Lyell (1852) founded the main periods, viz. the Eocene with 34 per cent. of recent forms, Miocene 17 per cent., Pliocene 35 to 50 per cent. Subsequent investigations naturally modified the numerical values upon which this nomenclature was based, but without altering the order of the periods. Later, E. Beyrich introduced the Oligocene period, and some geologists recognize a Palaeocene or early Eocene period. European geologists very generally use the grouping adopted by R. Hörnes: Younger Tertiary Neogene (Miocene, Pliocene). = Older Tertiary Palaeogene (Palaeocene, Eocene, Oligocene). The great number and variety of mammalian remains has made it possible for the Tertiary rocks to be classified by their means: see A. Gaundry, Les enchainements du monde animal-mammifères Tertiaires (1878); W. B. Dawkins, Q. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. (1880); Forsyth Major, Geol. Mag. (London, 1899); and H. F. Osborn, J. L. Wortman, G. F. Matthew, for western North America, Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., xii. (1899).. During the Tertiary era the geographical configuration of the globe was steadily approaching that of the present day; but in the earlier part of the time there still existed the great equatorial ocean" Tethys," and there is evidence that East India and Africa, Australia and Asia, north Europe and North America were probably severally united by land connexions. As the period advanced, along the very line that had been occupied by the nummulitic sea (Tethys) the crust began to be folded up, giving rise to the Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, Himalayas and other mountains, some of the carly Tertiary marine formations being now found raised more than 16,000 ft. above the present level of the sea. Associated with these crustal movements were enormous outpourings of volcanic materials. The faunal aspect of the Tertiary periods differs strikingly from that of preceding Secondary or Mesozoic; in place of the great saurian reptiles we find the rapid development and finally the maximum expansion of mammals. Snakes and true birds advanced rapidly towards their modern position. In the seas, bony fish and crab-like decapods increased in numbers and variety, while pelecypods and gasteropods took the prominent place previously occupied by ammonites and belemnites, and, leaving behind such forms as Rudistes, Inoceramus, &c., they gradually developed in the direction of the modern regional groups. In the plant world, the dicotyle-· donous angiosperms gradually assumed the leading rôle which they Occupy to-day. The climate in northern latitudes seems to have passed from temperate to sub-tropical, with minor fluctuations, until at the close a rapid lowering of temperature ushered in the glacial period. (J. A. H.) TERTULLIAN (c. 155-c. 222), whose full name was QUINTUS SEPTIMIUS FLORENS TERTULLIANUS, is the earliest and after Augustine the greatest of the ancient church writers of the West. Before him the whole Christian literature in the Latin language consisted of a translation of the Bible, the Octavius of Minucius Felix (q.v.)—an apologetic treatise written in the Ciceronian style for the higher circles of society, and with no evident effect for the church as a whole, the brief Acts of the Scillitan martyrs, and a list of the books recognized as canonical Whether Victor the (the so-called Muratorian fragment). Roman bishop and Apollonius the Roman senator ever really made an appearance as Latin authors is quite uncertain. Tertullian in fact created Christian Latin literature; one might almost say that that literature sprang from him full-grown, alike in form and substance, as Athena from the head of Zeus. Cyprian polished the language that Tertullian had made, sifted the thoughts he had given out, rounded them off, and turned them into current coin, but he never ceased to be aware of his dependence on Tertullian, whom he designated as Kar' ¿oxy, his master (Jer., De vir. ill. 53). Augustine, again, stood on the shoulders of Tertullian and Cyprian; and these three North Africans are the fathers of the Western churches. Tertullian's place in universal history is determined by (1) his intellectual and spiritual endowments, (2) his moral force and evangelical fervour, (3) the course of his personal development, (4) the circumstances of the time in the midst of which he worked. (1) Tertullian was a man of great originality and genius, characterized by the deepest pathos, the liveliest fancy, and the most penetrating keenness, and was endowed with ability to appropriate and make use of all the methods of observation and speculation, and with the readiest wit. His writings in tone and character are always alike "rich in thought and destitute of form, passionate and hair-splitting, eloquent and pithy in expression, energetic and condensed to the point of obscurity." His style has been characterized with justice as dark and resplendent like ebony. His eloquence was of the vehement order; but it wins hearers and readers by the strength of its passion, the energy of its truth, the pregnancy and elegance of its expression, just as much as it repels them by its heat without light, its sophistical argumentations, and its elaborate hair-splittings. Though he is wanting in moderation and in luminous warmth, his tones are by no means always harsh; and as an author he ever aspired with longing after humility and love and patience, though his whole life was lived in the atmosphere of conflict. Tertullian both as a man and as a writer had much in common with the apostle Paul. (2) In spite of all the contradictions in which he involved himself as a thinker and as a teacher, Tertullian was a compact | his energy to the study of Scripture and of Christian literature. ethical personality. What he was he was with his whole being. Once a Christian, he was determined to be so with all his soul, and to shake himself free of all half measures and compromises with the world. It is not difficult to lay one's finger upon very many obliquities, self-deceptions and sophisms in Tertullian in matters of detail, for he struggled for years to reconcile things that were in themselves irreconcilable; yet in each case the perversities and sophisms were rather the outcome of the peculiarly difficult circumstances in which he stood. It is easy to convict him of having failed to control the glowing passion that was in him. He is often outrageously unjust in the substance of what he says, and in manner harsh to cynicism, scornful to gruesomeness; but in no battle that he fought was he ever actuated by selfish interests. What he did was really done for the Gospel, as he understood it, with all the faculties of his soul. But he understood the Gospel as being primarily an assured hope and a holy law, as fear of the Judge who can cast into hell and as an inflexible rule of faith and of discipline. Of the glorious liberty of the children of God he had nothing but a mere presentiment; he looked for it only in the world beyond the grave, and under the power of the Gospel he counted as loss all the world could give. He well understood the meaning of Christ's saying that He came not into the world to bring peace, but a sword: in a period when a lax spirit of conformity to the world had seized the churches he maintained the "vigor evangelicus" not merely against the Gnostics but against opportunists and a worldly-wise clergy. Among all the fathers of the first three centuries Tertullian has given the most powerful expression to the terrible earnestness of the Gospel. Not only was he master of the contents of the Bible: he also read carefully the works of Hermas, Justin, Tatian, Miltiades, Melito, Irenaeus, Proculus, Clement, as well as many Gnostic treatises, the writings of Marcion in particular. In apologetics his principal master was Justin, and in theology proper and in the controversy with the Gnostics, Irenaeus. As a thinker he was not original, and even as a theologian he has produced but few schemes of doctrine, except his doctrine of sin. His special gift lay in the power to make what had been traditionally received impressive, to give to it its proper form, and to gain for it new currency. From Rome Tertullian visited Greece and perhaps also Asia Minor; at any rate we know that he had temporary relations with the churches there. He was consequently placed in a position in which he could check the doctrine and practice of the Roman church. Thus equipped with knowledge and experience, he returned to Carthage and there laid the foundation of Latin Christian literature. At first, after his conversion, he wrote Greek, but by and by Latin almost exclusively. The elements of this Christian Latin language may be enumerated as follows:-(i.) it had its origin, not in the literary language of Rome as developed by Cicero, but in the language of the people as we find it in Plautus and Terence; (ii.) it has an African complexion; (iii.) it is strongly influenced by Greek, particularly through the Latin translation of the Septuagint and of the New Testament, besides being sprinkled with a large number of Greek words derived from the Scriptures or from the Greek liturgies; (iv.) it bears the stamp of the Gnostic style and contains also some military expressions; (v.) it owes something to the original creative power of Tertullian. As for his theology, its leading factors were-(i.) the teachings of the apologists; (ii.) the philosophy of the Stoics; (iii.) the rule of faith, interpreted in an anti-Gnostic sense, as he had received it from the Church of Rome; (iv.) the Soteriological theology of Melito and Irenaeus; (v.) the substance of the utterances of the Montanist prophets (in the closing decades of his life). This analysis does not disclose, nor indeed is it possible to discover, what was the determining element for Tertullian; in fact he was under the dominion of more than one ruling principle, and he felt himself bound by several mutually opposing authorities. It was his desire to unite the enthusiasm of primitive Christianity with intelligent thought, the original demands of the Gospel with every letter of the Scriptures and with the practice of the Roman church, the sayings of the Paraclete with the authority of the bishops, the law of the churches with the freedom of the inspired, the rigid discipline of the Montanist with all the utterances of the New Testament and with the arrangements of a church seeking to set itself up within the world. At this task he toiled for years, involved in contradictions which it took all the finished skill of the jurist to conceal from him for a time. At last he felt compelled to break off from the church for which he had (3) The course of Tertullian's personal development fitted him in an altogether remarkable degree to be a teacher of the church. Born at Carthage of good family-his father was a "centurio pro consularis "-he received a first-rate education both in Latin and in Greek. He was able to speak and write Greek, and gives evidence of familiarity alike with its prose and with its poetry; and his excellent memory-though he himself complains about it-enabled him always to bring in at the right place an appropriate, often brilliant, quotation or some historical allusion. The old historians, from Herodotus to Tacitus, were familiar to him, and the accuracy of his historical knowledge is astonishing. He studied with earnest zcal the Greek philosophers; Plato in particular, and the writings of the Stoics, he had fully at command, and his treatise De Anima shows that he himself was able to investigate and discuss philosophical problems. From the philosophers he had been led to the medical writers, whose treatises plainly had a place in his working library. But no portion of this rich store of miscellaneous knowledge has left its characteristic impress on his writings; this influence was reserved for his legal training. His father, whose military spirit reveals itself in the whole bearing of Tertullian, to whom Christianity was above every-lived and fought; but the breach could not clear him from the thing a "militia," had intended him for the law. He studied in Carthage, probably also in Rome, where, according to Eusebius, he enjoyed the reputation of being one of the most eminent jurists. This statement derives confirmation from the Digest, where references are made to two works, De Castrensi Peculio and Quaestionum Libri VIII., of a Roman jurist named Tertullian, who must have flourished about 180 A.D. In point of fact the quondam advocate never disappeared in the Christian presbyter. This was at once his strength and his weakness: his strength, for as a professional pleader he had learned howing indignation against the ever-advancing secularization of to deal with an adversary according to the rules of the art-to pull to pieces his theses, to reduce him ad absurdum, and to show the defects and contradictions of his statements, and was specially qualified to expose the irregularities in the proceedings taken by the state against the Christians; but it was also his weakness, for it was responsible for his litigiousness, his often doubtful shifts and artifices, his sophisms and argumentationes ad hominem, his fallacies and surprises. At Rome in mature manhood Tertullian became a Christian, under what circumstances we do not know, and forthwith he bent himself with all contradictions in which he found himself entangled. Not only did the great chasm between the old Christianity, to which his soul clung, and the Christianity of the Scriptures as juristically and philosophically interpreted remain unbridged; he also clung fast, in spite of his separation from the Catholic church, to his position that the church possesses the true doctrine, that the bishops per successionem are the repositories of the grace of the teaching office, and so forth. The growing violence of his latest works is to be accounted for, not only by his burn the Catholic church, but also by the incompatibility between the authorities which he recognized and yet was not able to reconcile. After having done battle with heathens, Jews, Marcionites, Gnostics, Monarchians, and the Catholics, he died an old man, carrying with him to the grave the last remains of primitive Christianity in the West, but at the same time in conflict with himself. (4) What has just been said brings out very clearly how important in their bearing on Tertullian's development were the circumstances of the age in which he laboured. His activity as a Christian falls between 190 and 220, a period of very great moment in the history of the Catholic church; for within it the struggle with Gnosticism was brought to a victorious close, the New Testament established a firm footing within the churches, the "apostolic " rules which thenceforward regulated all the affairs of the church were called into existence, and the ecclesiastical priesthood came to be developed. Within this period also falls that evangelical and legal reaction against the political and secular tendencies of the church which is known as Montanism. The same Tertullian who had fortified the Catholic church against Gnosticism was none the less anxious to protect it from becoming a political organization. Being unable to reconcile incompatibles, he broke with the church and became the most powerful representative of Montanism in the West. Although Tertullian's extant works are both numerous and copious, our knowledge of his life is very vague. He cannot have been born much later than about 150. His activity as a jurist in Rome must fall within the period of Commodus; for there is no indication in his writings that he was in Rome in the time of Marcus Aurelius, and many passages seem to preclude the supposition. The date of his conversion to Christianity is quite uncertain; there is much in favour of the years between 190 and 195. How long he remained in Rome after becoming a Christian, whether he had attained any office in the church before leaving Rome, what was the date of his visit to Greece-on these points also we remain in ignorance. It is certain that he was settled in Carthage in the second half of 197, the date of his writing his Apologeticus and (shortly afterwards) his two books Ad nationes; we also know that he became a presbyter in Carthage and was married. His recognition of the Montanistic prophecy in Phrygia as a work of God took place in 202-203, at the time when a new persecution broke out. For the next five years it was his constant endeavour to secure the victory for Montanism within the church; but in this he became involved more and more deeply in controversy with the majority of the church in Carthage and especially with its clergy, which had the support of the clergy of Rome. As Jerome writes (De vir. ill. 53): Usque ad mediam aetatem presbyter fuit ecclesiae Africanae, invidia postea et contumeliis clericorum Romanae ecclesiae ad Montani dogma delapsus." On his breach with the Catholic church, probably in 207-208, he became the head of a small Montanist community in Carthage. In this position he continued to labour, to write, and to assail the lax Catholics and their clergy until at least the time of Bishop Calixtus in the reign of Elagabalus. The year of his death is uncertain. Jerome (ut sup.) says: "Fertur vixisse usque ad decrepitam aetatem." That he returned at last to the bosom of the Catholic church is a mere legend, the motive of which is obvious; his adherents after his death continued to maintain themselves as a small community in Carthage. Although he had left the church, his earlier writings continued to be extensively read; and in the 4th century his Western Christians, until they were superseded by those of Jerome, works, along with those of Cyprian, were the principal reading of Ambrose, Augustine and Gregory. Jerome has included him in his catalogue of Christian "viri illustres," but only as a Catholic to whom reference should be made with caution.1 The works of Tertullian, on the chronology of which a great deal has been written, and which for the most part do not admit of being dated with perfect certainty, fall into three classes-the apologetic, defending Christianity against paganism and Judaism; the polemical dogmatic, refuting heresies and heretics; and the ascetic or practical, dealing with points of morality and church discipline. In point of time also three periods can be readily distinguished, the years 202-203 and 207-208 constituting the divisions. Some of the books he wrote have unfortunately disappeared in particular the De spectaculis, De baptismo, and De virginibus velandis in Greek; his works in Latin on the same subjects have survived. 1. Works dating from before 202-203.-To this class belong the Apologeticus (197) and the two books Ad nationes. De spectaculis, De idololatria, De cultu feminarum Libri II., De testimonio animae (written soon after the Apologeticus), Ad martyres (perhaps the earliest of all), De baptismo haereticorum (now lost). De baptismo, De poenitentia, De oratione (the last three written for catechumens), De patientia, Ad uxorem Libri II., De praescriptione haereticorum, and Adv. Marcionem (in its first form)." The Apologeticus, which in the 3rd century was translated into Greek, is the weightiest work in defence of Christianity of the first two centuries. It disposes of the charges brought against Christians for secret crimes (incest, &c.) and public offences (contempt of the State religion and high treason), and asserts the absolute superiority of Christianity as a revealed religion beyond the rivalry of all human systems. Compare also the judgment of Hilary and of Vincent of Lerins, Commonit,, 24. | Respecting its relation to the Octavius of Minucius Felix much has been written, to the present writer it seems unquestionable that Tertullian's work was the later. De praescriptione haereticorum, in which the jurist is more clearly Of great moment also is the heard than the Christian. It is the chief of the dogmatic or polemical works, and rules the accuser out of court at the very opening of the case. The De spectaculis and De idololatria show he formally went over to that creed; on the other hand, his De that Tertullian was already in a certain sense a Montanist before poenitentia proves that his carlier views on church discipline were much more tolerant than his later. To learn something of his Christian temper we must read the De oratione and the De patientia. point of view. The De baptismo is of special interest from the archaeological II. Works written between 202-203 and 207-208.-De virginibus velandis, De corona militis, De fuga in perseculione, De exhorta tione castitatis, De scorpiace (a booklet against the Gnostics, whom he compares to scorpions; it is written in praise of martyrdom), Adversus Hermogenem, De censu animae adv. Hermogenem (lost), Adv. Valentinianos, Adv. Apelleiacos (lost), De paradiso (lost), De fato (lost), De anima (the first book on Christian psychology), De carne Christi, De resurrectione carnis, and De spe fidelium (lost), were all written after Tertullian had recognized the prophetic claims of the Montanists, but before he had left the church. books Adv. Marcionem, his main anti-Gnostic work (in the third III. Works later than 207-208.-To this period belong the five form-the first of the five was written in 207-208), Ad Scapulam (an admonition to the persecuting proconsul of Africa, written soon after 212), De pallio (a defence of his wearing the pallium instead of the toga), Adv. Praxean (his principal work against the Monarchians), and Adv. Judaeos, chaps. ix.-xiv. of which are a completion by another and less skilful hand. The latest extant works of Tertullian (all after 217) are his controversial writings against the laxity of the Catholics, full of the bitterest attacks, especially upon Calixtus, the bishop of Rome; these are De monogamia, De jejunio, De pudicitia, and De ecstasi Libri VII. (lost). The arguments against the genuineness of some of the above writings possible that Tertullian was the author of the Acta perpetuae et do not seem to the present writer to have weight. It is quite felicitatis, but he did not write the Libellus adv omnes haereses cionem, De Sodoma, De Jona, De Genesi, De judicio Domini; or often appended to De praescriptione; or the poems Adv. Mar the fragment De execrandis gentium diis; or the De Trinitate and De cibis Judaicis of Novatian. EDITIONS. For the MSS. see E. Preuschen in A. Harnack, Geschichte der altchristl. Literatur, i. 675-7. Of printed collections Migne, Patr. Lat. i.-ii. (Paris, 1844); Fr. Oehler (3 vols., Leipzig, the chief are the editio princeps by Beatus Rhenanus (Basel, 1521), 1851-4); and A. Reifferscheid and G. Wissowa in the Corpus scriptorum eccl. Lat. (Pars i., Vienna, 1890). Editions of the separate books are almost innumerable. TRANSLATIONS.-German by K. A. H. Kellner (2 vols. Cologne, 1882) and selections in Bibliothek der Kirchenväter (1869, 1872); and iv., and (apologetic and practical writings) by C. Dodgson in English by S. Thelwall and others in Ante-Nicene Fathers, iii. Library of the Fathers, x. (Oxford, 1842). LITERATURE.-Fr. Oehler's third volume contains a collection of See also A. Hauck, Tertullian's Leben und early dissertations. Schriften (Erlangen, 1877); J. M. Fuller in Dict. Chr. Biog.. iv. 818-864; E. Nolldechen, Tertullian (Gotha, 1890); P. Monceaux, Histoire littéraire de l'Afrique chrétienne, vol. i. (Paris, 1901); chap. x. (London, 1909); and the various Histories of Dogma and T. R. Glover, The Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire, Church Histories. For a complete bibliography see G. Krüger, Hist. of Early Christian Literature (Eng. tr. New York and London, 1897); Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. fur prot. Theologie, xix.; and O. Bardenhewer, Patrology (Eng. tr. Freiburg im Breisgau and St Louis, 1908). A large number of carlier monographs on special points are cited in the 9th edn. of the Ency. Brut. (A. HA.; X.) TERUEL, a province of north-eastern Spain, formed in 1833 from part of the ancient kingdom of Aragon; bounded on the N. by Saragossa, E. by Tarragona, S.E. and S. by Castellon de la Plana and Valencia, S.W. by Cuenca, and W. by Guadalajara. Pop. (1900) 246,001; area 5720 sq. m. In the centre of the province rise the Sierras of Gudar and San Just; in the southwest and west are the lofty Albarracin range, the Montes Universales, and the isolated ridges of Palomera and Cucalon. Outliers of the Castellon and Tarragona highlands extend along the eastern border. The northern districts belong to the Ebro basin. In the west there are a few peaks, such as the Cerro de San Felipe and Muela de San Juan, which exceed 5000 ft. in altitude and are covered with snow for many months; but the highest point is Javalambre (6568 ft.) in the south. The sierras give rise to several large rivers, the principal being |