the Tagus (q.v.); the Guadalaviar, which rises in the Montes Universales and flows south-east to enter the Mediterranean at Valencia; the Jiloca, which flows north from the lake of Cella to join the Jalón at Calatayud; the Guadalope, Martin and Matarraña, tributaries of the Ebro. Notwithstanding the fertile character of the plains and the abundance of mineral wealth, the trade of the province is unimportant and civilization in a backward state, owing to the lack of means of transport, want of enterprise and imperfect communication with the outer world. Much land is devoted to pasture that could be cultivated. Extensive forests with fine timber are neglected, as are some important coal beds in the eastern districts. The chief products are corn, wine, oil, cheese, fruits, timber, flax, hemp, silk, wool and saffron, together with cattle, sheep and swine; while in the busier centres some slight manufacture of coarse cloth, paper, leather, soap, pottery and esparto goods is carried on. The only railway is the line from Murviedro, on the Gulf of Valencia, to Calatayud. TERUEL, the capital of the Spanish province of Teruel; on the left bank of the river Guadalaviar, at its confluence with the Alfambra, and on the Murviedro-Calatayud railway. Pop. (1900) 10,797. The older part of Teruel is a walled city with narrow gloomy streets and crumbling medieval houses, but modern suburbs have been built outside the walls. Some of the numerous churches are worth seeing, with their paintings by the 17th-century artist Antonio Visquert. In the cloisters of San Pedro lie the remains of the celebrated "lovers of Teruel," Juan de Marcilla and Isabella de Segura, who lived in the 13th century and whose pathetic story has formed the subject of numerous dramas and poems by Perez de Montalban, Yaque de Salas, Hartzenbusch and others. The cathedral dates from the 16th century. The great aqueduct of 140 arches was erected in 1555-60 by Pierre Bedel, a French architect. Teruel has several good hospitals and asylums for the aged and children, an institute, a training school for teachers, primary schools, a public library, an athenaeum, a meteorological station, and a large prison. The see was created in 1577, and forms part of the archiepiscopal province of Saragossa. TERVUEREN, a small town of Belgium in the province of Brabant, midway between Brussels and Louvain. Pop. (1904) 4017. It contained an ancient abbey and a hunting château belonging to the dukes of Brabant. The fine park of Tervueren is really part of the forest of Soignies. The Colonial Museum and World's Colonial School are established here, and Tervueren is connected with Brussels by a fine broad avenue, traversed by an electric tramway as well as by carriage and other roads, and between 6 and 7 m. in length. TERZA RIMA, or "third rhyme," a form of verse adapted from the Italian poets of the 13th century. Its origin has been attributed by some to the three-lined ritournel, which was an early Italian form of popular poetry, and by others to the sirventes of the Provençal troubadours. The serventese incatenato of the latter was an arrangement of triple rhymes, and unquestionably appears to have a relation with terza rima; this connexion becomes almost a certainty when we consider the admiration expressed by the Tuscan poets of the 13th century for the metrical inventions of their forerunners, the Provençals. In Italian, a stanza of terza rima consists of three lines of eleven syllables, linked with the next stanza, and with the next, and so on, by a recurrence of rhymes: thus aba, bcb, cdc, ded, &c., so that, however long the poem is, it can be divided nowhere without severing the continuity of the rhyme. Schuchardt has developed an ingenious theory that these successive terzinas are really chains of ritournels, just as ottava rima, according to the same theory, is a chain of rispetti. There were, unquestionably, chains of interwoven triple rhymed lines before the days of Dante, but it was certainly he who raised terza rima from the category of folk-verse, and gave it artistic character. What this character is may best be seen by an examination of the austere and majestic lines with which the Inferno opens, no more perfect example of terza rima having ever been composed: "Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita Ahi quanto a dir qual'era è cosa dura It is impossible, however, to break off here, since there is no rhyme to forte, which has to be supplied twice in the succeeding terzina, where, however, a fresh rhyme, trovai, is introduced, linking the whole to a still further terzina, and so on, indefinitely. The only way in which a poem in terza rima can be closed is by abandoning a rhyme, as at the end of Canto 1 of the Inferno, where no third rhyme is supplied to Pietro and dietro. Boccaccio wrote terza rima in close following of Dante, but it has not been a form very frequently adopted by Italian poets. Nor has the extreme difficulty of sustaining dignity and force in these complicated chains of verse made writers in other languages very anxious to adventure on terza rima. In the age of Elizabeth, Samuel Daniel employed it in his "Epistle to the Countess of Bedford," but he found no followers. Probably the most successfully sustained poem in terza rima in the English language is Mrs Browning's Casa Guidi Windows (1851). The Germans have always had an ambition to write in terza rima. It was used by Paul Schede, a writer of whom little is known, before the close of the 16th century, and repeatedly by Martin Opitz (1597-1639), who called the form drittreime. Two centuries and a half later, W. Schlegel had the courage to translate Dante in the metre of the Italian; and it was used for original poems by Chamisso and Rückert. Goethe, in 1826, addressed a poem in terza rima to the praise of Schiller, and there is a passage in this metre at the beginning of the second part of Faust. See Hugo Schuchardt, Ritournell und Terzine (Halle, 1875). (E. G.) TESCHEN (Czech, Tešin; Polish, Cieszyn), a town of Austria, in Silesia, 50 m. S.E. of Troppau by rail. Pop. (1900) 19,142, of which over half is German, 43 per cent. Polish and the remainder Czech. It is situated on the Olsa, a tributary of the Oder, and combines both Polish and German peculiarities in the style of its buildings. The only relic of the ancient castle is a square tower, dating from the 12th century. There are several furniture factories and large saw-mills. Teschen is an old town and was the capital of the duchy of Teschen. It was at Teschen that Maria Theresa and Frederick II. signed, in May 1779, the Peace, which put an end to the war of Bavarian succession. The duchy of Teschen belonged to the dukes of Upper Silesia, and since 1298 it stood under the suzerainty of Bohemia. It became a direct apanage of the Bohemian crown in 1625 at the extinction of the male line of its dukes, and since 1766 it bore the name of Saxe-Teschen, owing to the fact that Prince Albert of Saxony, who married a daughter of Maria Theresa, received it as part of his wife's dowry. In 1822, it was bestowed on the Archduke Charles, the victor of Aspern; it was inherited by his eldest son, and, at his death, in 1895 it passed into the hands of his nephew, the Archduke Frederick. TESSELLATED (Lat. tessellatus,), formed of tessellae, or small tesserae, cubes from half an inch to an inch square like dice, of pottery, stone, marble, enamel, &c. (See PAVEMENT and MOSAIC.) TESSIN, CARL GUSTAF, COUNT (1695-1770), Swedish statesman, son of a great architect, Nicodemus Tessin, began his public career in 1723, at which time he was a member of the Holstein faction. In 1725 he was appointed ambassador at Vienna, and in that capacity counteracted the plans of the Swedish chancellor, Count Arvid Horn, who was for acceding to the Hanoverian Alliance. During the riksdags 1726-27 and 1731 he fiercely opposed the government, and his wit, eloquence and imposing presence made him one of the foremost protagonists of the party subsequently known as The Hats" (see SWEDEN: History). From 1735 to 1736 he was again Swedish ambassador at Vienna. During the riksdag of 1738 he was elected marshal of the diet and contributed more than anyone else to overthrow the Horn administration the same year. the division of the spoil of patronage he chose for himself the post of ambassador extraordinary at Paris, and from 1739 to 46 On 1742 delighted Versailles with his brilliant qualities of grand | from popish recusants") was the king's declaration of indulgence, seigneur, at the same time renewing the traditional alliance dispensing with laws inflicting disabilities on Nonconformists. between France and Sweden which had been interrupted for This act enforced upon all persons filling any office, civil or more than sixty years. His political ability, however, was by military, the obligation of taking the oaths of supremacy and no means commensurate with his splendid social qualities. It allegiance and subscribing a declaration against transubstantiawas his sanguine credulity which committed the "Hats" to tion, and also of receiving the sacrament within three months their rash and unconsidered war with Russia in 1741-42, though after admittance to office. The act did not extend to peers; in fairness it must be added that Tessin helped them out of but in 1678 30 Car. II. st. 2 enacted that all peers and members their difficulties again by his adroitness as a party leader and of the House of Commons should make a declaration against his stirring eloquence. He gained his arm-chair in the senate transubstantiation, invocation of saints, and the sacrifice of as a reward for his services on this occasion. In 1743 Tessin the mass-a special exception being made in favour of the composed the long outstanding differences between Sweden duke of York. The provisions of the Test Act were violated and Denmark in a special mission to Copenhagen. In 1744 he by both Charles II. and James II. on the ground of the dispenswas sent at the head of an extraordinary embassade to Berlin ing power claimed by the Stuart kings. In the well-known case to escort to Stockholm Frederick the Great's sister, Louisa of Godden v. Hales (11 State Trials, 1166), an action for penalties Ulrica, the chosen bride of the Swedish crown-prince, Adolphus under the Test Act brought against an officer in the army, the Frederick. As overhofmarskalk of the young court, Tessin judges decided in favour of the dispensing power-a power speedily captivated the royal pair. He also succeeded in finally abolished by the Bill of Rights. After a considerable withdrawing the crown-prince from beneath the influence of number of amendments and partial repeals by the legislature the Russian empress Elizabeth, to whom Adolphus Frederick of the acts of 1661, 1672 and 1678, and of acts of indemnity owed his throne when he became king of Sweden in 1751, to protect persons under certain circumstances from penalties thereby essentially contributing to the maintenance of the incurred under the Test Act, the necessity of receiving the independence of Sweden. From 1746 to 1752 Tessin was sacrament as a qualification for office was abolished by 9 Geo. IV. president of the chancellery, as the Swedish prime minister C. 17, and all acts requiring the taking of oaths and declarations was called in those days. His "system" aimed at a rapproche- against transubstantiation, &c., were repealed by the Roman ment with Denmark with the view of counterbalancing the Catholic Relief Act of 1829 (10 Geo. IV. c. 7). This general influence of Russia in the north. It was a dignified and prudent repeal has been followed by the special repeal of the Corporation policy, but his endeavour to consolidate it by promoting a Act by the Promissory Oaths Act 1871, of the Test Act by the matrimonial alliance between the two courts alienated the Statute Law Revision Act 1863, and of the act of 1678 by an Swedish crown-prince, who, as a Holsteiner, nourished an act of 1866 (29 & 30 Vict. c. 19). Religious tests remained ineradicable hatred of everything Danish. As, moreover, on in the English universities until 1871, in Dublin University the accession of Adolphus Frederick in 1751, Tessin refused until 1873, and the Scottish universities until 1889. To be a to countenance any extension of the royal prerogative, the member of the Church of England was a necessary condition rupture between him and the court became final. On the precedent for holding most university or college offices by the occasion of the coronation (1752) he resigned the premiership, Act of Uniformity of 1662, and such offices were not affected and in 1754 the governorship of the young crown-prince by the Toleration Act of 1688 and the Roman Catholic Relief Gustavus also, spending the rest of his days at his estate at Act of 1829. In 1871 the University Tests Act abolished subAkerö. Tessin was one of the most brilliant personages of his scriptions to the articles of the Church of England, all declaraday, and the most prominent representative of French culture tions and oaths respecting religious belief, and all compulsory in Sweden. He was also a fine orator, and his literary style attendance at public worship in the universities of Oxford, is excellent. Cambridge and Durham. There is an exception confining to persons in holy orders of the Church of England degrees in divinity and positions restricted to persons in holy orders, such as the divinity and Hebrew professorships. His principal works are his autobiographical fragments (1st ed. Stockholm, 1819), Tessin och Tessiniana; K. G. Tessin's Dagbok (Stockholm, 1824), both of them extracts from his voluminous MS. memoirs in 29 volumes; and his famous En gammal mans bref til en ung Prins (Stockholm, 1753; English editions, 1755 and 1756). addressed to his pupil, afterwards Gustavus 111., one of the most delightful books for the young that ever saw the light. See R. Nisbet Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London, 1895), vol. i; Bernhard von Beskow, Minne af Grefve K. G. Tessin (Stockholm, 1864): Bernhard Elis Malmstrom, Sveriges politiska historia från Konung Karl XII.'s dod till statshvalfningen, 1772 (Stockholm, 1893-1901). (R. N. B.) TEST ACTS. The principle that none but persons professing the established religion were eligible for public employment was adopted by the legislatures of both England and Scotland soon after the Reformation. In England the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity and the severe penalties denounced against recusants, whether Roman Catholic or Nonconformist, were affirmations of this principle. The Act of 7 Jac. I. c. 2 provided that all such as were naturalized or restored in blood should receive the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. It was not, however, until the reign of Charles II. that actual receiving of the communion of the Church of England was made a condition precedent to the holding of public offices. The earliest imposition of this test was by the Corporation Act of 1661 (13 Car. II. st. 2, c. 1), enacting that, besides taking the oath of allegiance and supremacy and subscribing a declaration against the Solemn League and Covenant, all members of corporations were within one year after election to receive the sacrament of the Lord's Supper according to the rites of the Church of England. This act was followed by the Test Act of 1672 (25 Car. II. c. 2). The immediate cause of the Test Act (the full title of which is "An act for preventing dangers which may happen Scotland. A religious test was imposed immediately after the Reformation. By 1567, c. 9, no one was to be appointed to a public The Scottish Test Act was 1681, c. 6, rescinded by 1690, c. 7. Reoffice or to be a notary who did not profess the Reformed religion. nunciation of popery was to be made by persons employed in education (1700, c. 3). A motion to add, after the 18th article of union, an exemption of Scotsmen from the sacramental test in the United Kingdom was negatived by the Scottish parliament. A similar fate awaited a proposal that while a sacramental test was in force in England all persons in public office in Scotland should subscribe their adhesion to the Presbyterian Church government. By 1707, c. 6, all professors, principals, regents, masters or others bearing office in any university, college or school in Scotland were to profess and subscribe to the Confession of Faith. All persons were to be free of any oath or test contrary to or inconsistent with reception of the communion was never a part of the test in Scotland the Protestant religion and Presbyterian Church government. The as in England and Ireland. The necessity for subscription to the Confession of Faith by persons holding a university office (other than that of principal or professor of theology) was removed by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 89. The act provided that in place of subscription every person appointed to a university office was to subscribe a declaration according to the form in the act, promising not to teach any opinions opposed to the divine authority of Scripture or to the Confession of Faith, and to do nothing to the prejudice of the Church of Scotland or its doctrines and privileges. All tests were finally abolished by an act of 1889 (52 & 53 Vict. c. 55). Ireland. An oath of allegiance was required by the Irish Act of Supremacy (2 Eliz. c. 1). The English Act of 3 Will. & M. c. 2 substituted other oaths and enforced in addition from peers, members of the House of Commons, bishops, barristers, attorneys and others a declaration against transubstantiation, invocation of the Virgin Mary and the saints, and the sacrifice of the mass. By the Irish Act of 2 Anne, c. 6, every person admitted to any office. civil or military, was to take and subscribe the oaths of allegiance, | author addresses two Messianic hymns. The writer already supremacy, and abjuration, to subscribe the declaration against transubstantiation, &c., and to receive the Lord's Supper according to the usage of the Church of Ireland. English legislation on the subject of oaths and declarations was adopted in Ireland by Yelverton's Act, 21 & 22 Geo. III. c. 48. § 3 (Ir.). These provisions were all repealed by the Promissory Oaths Act 1871. The Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1793 (33 Geo. III. c. 21, Ir.) excepted Trinity College, Dublin, from its provisions, and tests existed in Dublin university until 1873. They were abolished as far as regarded certain scientific professorships in 1867 by 30 Vict. c. 9, and were finally abolished for the whole university by the University of Dublin Tests Act 1873, except as to professors of and lecturers in divinity. United States.-By art. 6 of the constitution, no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States." A similar provision is generally included in the state constitutions. TESTAMENTS OF THE THREE PATRIARCHS. This apocryphal work of the Hebrew Scriptures was first published by M. R. James (The Testament of Abraham, the Greek Text now first edited with an Introduction and Notes. With an appendix containing extracts from the Arabic Version of the Testaments of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, by Barnes, Texts and Studies, ii. 2: Cambridge). The Greek testament of Abraham is preserved in two recensions from six and three MSS. respectively. This testament is also edited by Vassiliev in his Anecdota GraccoByzantina, 1893, i. 292-308 from a Vienna MS. already used by James. According to James, it was written in Egypt in the 2nd century A.D., and was translated subsequently into Slavonic (Tichonrawow, Pamjatniki otretschennoi russkoi Literaturi, 1863, i. 79-90), Rumanian (Gaster, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, 1887, ix. 195-226), Ethiopic and Arabic. This testament deals with Abraham's reluctance to die and the means by which his death was brought about. As regards its origin James writes (op. cit., p. 55): "The Testament was originally put together in the second century by a Jewish Christian: for the narrative portions he employed existing Jewish legends, and for the apocalyptic, he drew largely on his imagination." He holds that the book is referred to by Origen, Hom. in Luc. xxxv. With the exception of x.-xi. the work is really a legend and not an apocalypse. To the above conclusions Schürer, Gesch. des jüd. Volkes, 3rd ed., iii. 252, takes objection. He denies the reference in Origen, and asserts that there are no grounds for the assumption of a partial Jewish origin. But the present writer cannot agree with Schürer in these criticisms, but is convinced that a large body of Jewish tradition lies behind the book. Indeed, Kohler (Jewish Quarterly Review, 1895, v. 581-606) has given adequate grounds for regarding this apocryph as in the main an independent work of Jewish origin subsequently enlarged by a few Christian additions. An English translation of James's texts will be found in the Ante-Nicene Christian Library (Clark, 1897), pp. 185-201. The testaments of Isaac and Jacob are in part still preserved in Arabic and Ethiopic (see James, op. cit., 140–161). (R. H. C.) sees the Messianic kingdom established, under the sway of which the Gentiles will in due course be saved, Beliar overthrown, sin disappear from the earth, and the righteous dead rise to share in the blessedness of the living. Alas for the vanity of man's judgment and man's prescience! Our book had hardly been published, when Hyrcanus, owing to an injury done him by the Pharisees, broke with their party, and, joining the Sadducees, died a year or two later. His successors proved themselves the basest of men. Their infamy is painted in lurid colours by contemporary writers of the 1st century B.C., and by a strange irony the work, or, rather, fragments of the work of one of these assailants of the later Maccabees, has achieved immortality by finding a covert in the chief manifesto that was issued on behalf of one of the earlier members of that dynasty. This second writer singles out three of the Maccabean priest kings for attack, the first of whom he charges with every abomination; the people itself, he declares, is apostate, and chastisement will follow speedily-the temple will be laid waste, the nation carried afresh into captivity, whence, on their repentance, God will restore them again to their own land, where they shall enjoy the blessedness of God's presence and be ruled by a Messiah sprung from Judah. When we contrast the expectations of the original writer and the actual events that followed, it would seem that the chief value of his work would consist in the light that it throws on this obscure and temporary revolution in the Messianic expectations of Judaism towards the close of the 2nd century. But this is not so. The main, the overwhelming value of the book lies not in this province, but in its ethical teaching, which has achieved a real immortality by influencing the thought and diction of the writers of the New Testament, and even those of our Lord. This ethical teaching, which is indefinitely higher and purer than that of the Old Testament, is yet its true spiritual child, and helps to bridge the chasm that divides the ethics of the Old and New Testaments."1 In the early decades of the Christian era the text was current in two forms, which are denoted by Ha and H3 in this article and in the edition of the text published by the Oxford University Press. "The former of these was translated not later than A.D. 50 into Greek, and this translation was used by the scholar who rendered the second Hebrew recension into Greck. The first Greek translation was used by our Lord, by St Paul, and other New Testament writers. In the second and following centuries it was interpolated by Christian scribes, and finally condemned undiscriminatingly along with other apocryphs. For several centuries it was wholly lost sight of, and it was not till the 13th century that it was rediscovered through the agency of Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, who translated it into Latin, under the misconception that it was a genuine work of the twelve sons of Jacob, and that the Christian interpolations were a genuine product of Jewish prophecy. The advent of the Reformation brought in critical methods, and the book was unjustly disparaged as a mere Christian forgery for nearly four centuries. The time has at last arrived for this TESTAMENTS OF THE TWELVE PATRIARCHS. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (see APOCALYPTIC LITE-book, so noble in its ethical side, to come into its own."2 RATURE: II. Old Testament), are an important constituent of the apocryphal scriptures connected with the Old Testament, comprising the dying commands of the twelve sons of Jacob. They were written in Hebrew in the later years of John Hyrcanus in all probability after his final victory over the Syrian power and before his breach with the Pharisees-in other words, between 109 and 106. Their author was a Pharisee who combined loyalty to the best traditions of his party with the most unbounded admiration of Hyrcanus. The Maccabean dynasty had now reached the zenith of its prosperity, and in its reigning representative, who alone in the history of Judaism Dossessed the triple offices of prophet, priest and king, the Pharisaic party had come to recognize the actual Messiah. To this John Hyrcanus, in whom had culminated all the glories and gifts of this great family, our Versions and MSS.-The two recensions of the Hebrew original, to which we have already referred, were translated into Greek, the former being attested by the Greek MSS. ch and the latter by abdefg. which groups for the sake of brevity we designate as a and B. The Greek version was in turn rendered into Armenian in the 5th or 6th century. The rendering was made, except in a limited number of passages, from 8. Of this version there are at least eleven MSS. known. Here again two types of text, A and As, are represented, but for the most part the differences originated within the Armenian. Finally about the 13th century the Slavonic Version was made from the B form of the Greek Version. Here 1 From § 1 of the Introduction to R. H. Charles's The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, translated from the Editor's Greek Text (A. & C. Black, 1908). From of the Introduction to R. H. Charles's The Greek Original Language.—Apart from Grabe, till within the last fifteen years no notable scholar has advocated a Hebrew original. Nitzsch, Dillmann, Ritschl and Sinker are convinced that the book was not a translation but was written originally in Greek. To Kohler and Gaster belongs the honour of re-opening the question of the Hebrew original of the Testaments. Only the latter, however, offered any linguistic evidence. In his article on the question he sought to establish a Hebrew original of all the Testaments and to prove that the Hebrew text of Naphtali which he had discovered was the original testament, and that the Greek Naphtali was a late and corrupt reproduction of it with extensive additions from other sources. But he failed in establishing either thesis. The subject was next taken in hand by R. H. Charles, who in a preliminary form in the Encyclopaedia Biblica (i. 241, 1899), and later, with considerable fullness, in his edition of the Greek text of the Testaments (1908), brought to light a number of facts that put the question of a Hebrew original beyond the range of doubt. We will now place a few of the grounds before the reader. (a) Hebrew constructions and expressions are to be found in every page. Though the vocabulary is Greek the idiom is frequently Hebraic and foreign to the genius of the Greek language. Thus in T. Reub. vi. 11, ἐν αὐτῷ ἐξελέξατο = 102 19. In T. Jud. xx. 4, OTEL TV AUTOÙ-an utterly unmeaning phrase becomes intelligible on retroversion-xy b, on his very heart." In T. Benj. x. II Katolký Jete éx' ¿dríði iv iuol=“ ye shall dwell securely with me "; for here ride, as several times in the Septuagint, is a wrong לבטח rendering of (b) Dillographic renderings in the Greek of the same Hebrew expression: also dittographic expressions in the Greek implying dittographs in the Hebrew. See Introduction to R. H. Charles's Text, § 11. (c) Paronomasiae which are lost in the Greek can be restored by retranslation into Hebrew. There are over a dozen of such instances. (d) Many passages which are obscure or wholly unintelligible in the Greek become clear on retranslation into Hebrew. Of the large body of such passages (see op. cit. § 12) we will give only one. In T. Jud. ix. 3. we have the following impossible sentence, where Esau is referred to ήρθη νεκρὸς ἐν ὄρει Σιείρ, καὶ πορευόμενος εν Ανονίραμ ἀπέθανεν. Here a fragment of the Hebrew original, which has happily been preserved, reads, "wounded," where the Greek has νεκρός = 1913, which is manifestly a corruption of the former. a and B are not, strictly speaking, Greek recensions; for their chief variations go back to diverse forms of text already existing in the Hebrew He and H. For the considerable body of evidence supporting this conclusion see the Introduction to R. H. Charles's Text, § 12. A couple of the many passages in which the variations in a and are due to variations in Ha and H8 will now be given. In T. Benj. xii. 2 a reads εκοιμήθη ὕπνῳ καλῷ and B A S' ἀπέθανε ἐν γήρει καλῷ. Here ἐκοιμήθη and ἀπέθανε may be taken as renderings of the same Hebrew word, but by kaλ=1 #2, an un"at a good old age." The בשינה מונה doubted corruption of ... same corruption invaded both Hebrew recensions in T. Zcb. x. 6; T. Dan. vii. 1; T. Ash. viii. 1; T. Jos. xx. 4, whereas in T. Iss. vii. 9 both recensions were right. In the late Hebrew text of Naph. i. t the correct Hebrew phrase is found. Again in T. Ash. vi. 6 a reads εἰσφέρει αὐτὸν εἰς ζωὴν αἰώνιον and A παραμυθεῖται αὐτὸν ἐν ζωῇ. Here Tapauoira on, a corruption of elopipe. It is the soul of the righteous that is here spoken of, and a rightly says that the angel of peace "leads him into eternal life. The rightness of Ha is confirmed by T. Benj. vi. I, which reads ὁ γὰρ ἄγγελος τῆς εἰρήνης ὁδηγεῖ τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ. Ha and H8, however, differed mainly from each other in words and phrases, as we infer from a and B. In some passages, however, the divergence is on a larger scale, as in T. Lev. ii. 7-iii. Notwithstanding these divergences, however, the great similarities between a and 8 oblige us to assume that the translator of HB used the Greek version of Ha, or vice versa. That the former is the more likely we shall see presently. To the above we have a good parallel in the Book of Daniel; for the variations of its two chief Greek Versions-that of the Septuagint and of Theodotion-go back to variations in the Semitic. Date of the Original Hebrew.-"The date of the groundwork of the Testaments is not difficult to determine. Thus Reuben (T. Reub. vi. 10-11) admonishes his sons: Πρὸς τὸν Λευὶ ἐγγίσατε ἐν ταπεινώσει καρδίας ὑμῶν ἵνα δέξησθε εὐλογίαν ἐκ τοῦ στόματος αὐτοῦ ὅτι ἐν αὐτῷ ἐξελέξατο Κύριος βασιλεύειν ἐνώπιον παντὸς τοῦ λαοῦ. Here a high-priest who is also a king is referred to. Such a combination of offices naturally makes us think of the Maccabean priest-kings of the 2nd century B.C. The possibility of doubting this reference is excluded by the words that immediately follow:—kai #pookúvŋo are τὸ σπέρμα αὐτοῦ ὅτι ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν ἀποθανεῖται ἐν πολέμοις ὁρατοῖς καὶ ἀοράτοις καὶ ἐν ὑμῖν ἔσται βασιλεὺς αἰώνιος. A similar statement is made in T. Sim. v. 5. Thus the high-priest is not only a high-priest and civil ruler, but also a warrior. That the Maccabean high-priests are here designed cannot be reasonably doubted. But the identification becomes undeniable, as further characteristics of this priestly dynasty come to light. It was to be a new priesthood and to be called by a new name (T. Lev. viii. 14 lepareiav véar... ŏropa Kavor). Now the Maccabean high-priests were the first to assume the title priests of the Most High God '-the title anciently borne by Melchizedek. But the praises accorded in this book could not apply to all the Maccabean priest-kings of the nation. As it was written by a Pharisee, it could not have been composed after the breach arose between John Hyrcanus and the Pharisees towards the close of the 2nd century B.C. Thus the period of composition lies between 153, when Jonathan the Maccabee assumed the high-priesthood, and the year of the breach of John Hyrcanus with the Pharisees; some time, therefore, between 153 and 107. But the date can be determined between closer limits. To one member of the Maccabean dynasty are the prophetic gifts assigned in our text (T. Lev. viii. 15) in conjunction with the functions of kingship and priesthood. Now, in all Jewish history the triple offices were ascribed to only one individual, John Hyrcanus. Hence we conclude that the Testaments were written between 137 and 107.' the limits of the date of composition be fixed still more definitely. For the text refers most probably to the destruction of Samaria, T. Lev. vi. 11. In that case the Testaments were written between 109 and 107 B.C. But Date of the Greek Version.-The a Version seems to have been translated first, indeed before A.D. 50; for it is twice quoted by St Paul. The first passage is in Rom. i. 32 εὐ μόνον αὐτὰ ποιοῦσιν ἀλλὰ καὶ συνευδοκοῦσιν τοῖς πράσσουσιν which is taken almost verbally from T. Ash. vi. 2, ori ai dixpóowñol 8:σows †kodáσovrat (rd. ἁμαρτάνουσι) ὅτι καὶ πράσσουσι τὸ κακὸν καὶ συνευδοκοῦσι τοῖς πράσσουσιν. Since bg, A omit the words ὅτι . . · πράσσουσιν, we conclude that, though it is now found in a, adef. S1, it was originally wanting in 8 and probably also in Hs. For as we have already seen (see diagram above) aef were early influenced by a, and d is conflate in character. Hence in reality the passage was preserved only by a originally. In all the above cases there is no divergence among the MSS. and Versions. Yet the restorations are so many and so obvious that our contention might be taken for proven. But there is stronger evidence still, and this is to be found where the MSS. and Versions attest different texts, a standing generally in opposition to 8. A (Armenian Version), and S (= Slavonic Version). By means of this evidence we are able to prove not only that our book is from a Hebrew original, but that also the Hebrew existed in two recensions, H and HB, which are the parents respectively of a and Boрyń roù Beoû eis Téños. (see diagram above). "The Hebrew Text of one of the Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs" (Proceedings of the Soc. of Bibl. Archaeology, December 1893, January 1894). The second passage is the well-known one in 1 Thess. ii. 16, ἔφθασεν δὲ ἐπ ̓ αὐτοὺς ἡ ὀργὴ (+ τοῦ θεοῦ DEFG it, Vulg. 30) εἰς τέλος, which is borrowed from T. Lev. vi. 11, έφθασεν δὲ (+ ἐπ ̓ β) αὐτοὺς Here reads Κυρίου for τοῦ θεοῦ. The is omitted by a through a simple scribal error. On the ground of the above quotations we assume, therefore, that a was used by St Paul, and that He was therefore translated into Greek at latest before A.D. 50. When He was translated we have no definite means of deter- | Jacobites. Of this the Testament forms the first two books; mining. It was in all likelihood done subsequently to Ha. The translator of HB appears to have had the translation of Ha before him, and to have followed it generally unless where there were manifest divergencies between Ha and H8.1 Jewish Additions to the Text-(a) A large body of these additions can be classed under one head as written with a well-defined object and at a definite period. This period was about 70-40 B.C., and the object of the additions was the overthrow of the Maccabean high-priesthood, which in the 1st century B.C. had become guilty of every lewdness. T. Lev. x., xiv.-xvi.; T. Jud. xvii. 2-xviii. 1 (?), xxi. 6-xxiii., xxiv. 4-6; T. Zeb. ix.; T. Dan. v. 6-7, vii. 3 (?); T. Naph. iv.; T. Gad. viii. 2; T, Ash. vii. 4-7. These additions are identical in object and closely related in character and diction with the Psalms of Solomon. (b) Other additions are of various dates and cannot be more than mentioned here, i.e., T. Reub. ii. 3-iii. 2; T. Lev. xvii. 1-9; T. Zeb. vi. 4-6, vii.-viii. 3; T. Jos. x. 5-xviii. Christian Additions to the Text.-These additions are to be found in most of the Testaments and were made at different periods. The existence of these Christian elements in the text misled nearly every scholar for the past four hundred years into believing that the book itself was a Christian apocryph. To Grabe, Schnapp and Conybeare belongs the credit of showing that the Christian elements were interpolations-to Conybeare especially of the three, since, whereas the two others showed the high probability of their contention on internal evidence, Conybeare proved by means of the Armenian Version that when it was made many of the interpolations had not yet found their way into the text. For a full treatment of these passages see R. H. Charles's Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (1908), Introd. § 20. It and according to the title (which, apparently by an error, is made to apply to the whole eight books) it contains the "testament, or words which Our Lord spake to His holy Apostles when He rose from the dead." Plainly, it is one of that series of writings, claiming to embody the fundamental rules of the Church, which culminates in the Apostolical Constitutions (q.v.). It falls into three distinct parts: an apocalyptic introduction (book i. chapters 1-18; the division into books, however, is clearly not original); a "church order proper (i. 19-ii. 24); and a conclusion (ii. 25-27) of the same apocalyptic character as the introduction. (a) The Introduction professes to contain the record of the revelation of Himself by the Lord to His Apostles, with whom are Martha, Mary and Salome, on the evening after His resurrection. He is represented as unfolding to them, at their request, the signs of the end, and giving them instruction on various other topics. Incidentally, the fact becomes plain that this section is composed from the standpoint of Asia Minor and Syria, that it dates from soon after the time of Maximin (235-38) and Decius (249-51), and that it springs from a Christian community of a strictly puritan type. (b) The Church Order follows the general lines of the Canons of Hippolytus and similar documents. describes the Church and its buildings (i. 19); the office of the bishop and his functions (i. 19-27); the mystagogic instruction (i. 28) common to this and the Arabic Didascalia, where it occurs in an earlier form, and based in part upon the Gnostic "Acts of Peter "; the presbyter (i. 29-32); the deacon (i. 33-38); con. fessors (i. 39); the "widows who have precedence in sitting (i. 40-43), apparently the same persons who are spoken of elsewhere as presbyteresses 35, ii. 19); the subdeacon (i. 44) and the reader (i. 45), the order of whose offices seems to have been inverted; virgins of both sexes (i. 46); and those who possess charismata or spiritual gifts (i. 47). Next come the regulations for the laity, including the whole course of preparation for and admission to baptism (ii. 1-8), confirmation (ii. 9), and the eucharist (ii. 10); after which there follows a series of miscellaneous regulations for Easter and Pentecost (ii. 11-12), the agape (i. 13). the funds of the Church (ii. 17-20), the visitation of the sick (ii. 21), the use of psalmody (ii. 22), the burial of the dead (ii. 23), and the hours of prayer (ii. 24). (c) The Conclusion (ii. 25-27) brings us back to the injunctions of the Lord as to the keeping of these preT. Gad. vi. 3. 'Ear Tis duapcepts, a special charge to John, Andrew and Peter, and a stateτήσει εἰς σί εἰπὲ αὐτῷ ἐν εἰρήνῃ ment that copies of the Testament were made by John, Peter and kal éáv METavonon Matthew, and sent to Jerusalem by the hands of Dosithaeus, Sillas, Magnus and Aquila. Influence on the New Testament.-We have already shown that St Paul twice quoted from the Greek text of the Testaments. These two passages in Rom. and I Thess. give but the very faintest idea of the degree of his indebtedness in thought and phraseology in several of his Epistles, especially that to the Romans. But of still greater interest are the passages in the Gospels which show the influence of the Testaments, and these belong mainly to the sayings and discourses of our Lord. We may mention two of the most notable of these. Thus Matt. xviii. 15. 35, which deal with the great question of forgiveness, are clearly dependent on our text. Matt. xviii. 15. 'Eàv dè duapτήσῃ ὁ ἀδελφός σου κατά σου, ὕπαγε έλεγξον αὐτὸν μεταξύ σου καὶ αὐτοῦ μόνου. 35. ̓Εὰν μὴ ἀφῆτε ἕκαστος τῷ ἀδελφῷ αὐτοῦ ἀπὸ τῶν καρδιῶν ὑμῶν. ἄφες αὐτῷ. vi. 6. Ησύχασον μὴ ἐλέγξης. ν. 7. Αφες αὐτῷ ἀπὸ καρδίας. Next, the duty of loving God and our neighbour is already found in T. Dan. v. 3, which is the oldest literary authority which enjoins these two great commands. The form is infinitely finer in Matt. xxii. 37-39, but the matter is already in the Test. Dan. See Introd. 26 to R. H. Charles's Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. LITERATURE.(a) Texts.-Sinker, Testamenta XII Patriarcharum (1869); [this work gives b in the text and a in the footnotes; subsequently (1879) Sinker issued an Appendix with variations from cg): Charles, The Greek Versions of the Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs from nine MSS., with the Variants from the Armenian and Slavonic Versions and the Hebrew Fragments (1908). Commentary.-Charles, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs translated from the Editor's Greek Text (1908). Critical Inquiries.--See Schurer, G. J. V. iii. 261-262: Charles, The Test. XII. Patriarchs, Pp. xxxvi.-xli. (R. H. C.) TESTAMENTUM DOMINI ("TESTAMENT OF OUR LORD"). Extracts from the book which bears this title, contained in an 8th-century MS. at Paris, were published by Lagarde in 1856 (Reliquiae iuris ecclesiastici antiquissimae 80-89); and a Latin fragment, edited by Dr Montague James, appeared in 1893 (Texts and Studies, i. 154). The whole book was first published in Syriac in 1899, with a Latin translation by Mgr Rahmani, the Uniat Syrian Patriarch of Antioch. His text is that of a 17th-century MS. at Mosul, the colophon of which says that the Syriac text was translated from the original Greek "a Jacobo paupere, 'evidently James of Edessa, in A.D. 687; but he makes use of other material, including an Arabic version made from a Coptic copy written in A.D. 927. The Mosul MS. contains the whole Bible in the Peshitto version, followed by the Syrian "Clementine Octateuch. i.e., the collection of ecclesiastical law, in eight books, which was used by the Nestorians and 114 of the Introduction to R. H. Charles's The Greek Versions of the Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs. In all this there is much that is peculiar to or characteristic of the Testament. First and foremost is its ascription to the Lord Himself, which we can hardly be mistaken in regarding as an attempt to claim yet higher sanction than was claimed by the various compilations which were styled "apostolic. This fact alone would lead us to infer the pre-existence of certain of the latter. Again, the whole tone of the Testameutum is one of highly strung asceticism, and the regulations are such as point by their severity to a small and strictly organized body. They are "the wise," "the perfect," "sons of light "; but this somewhat Gnostic phraseology is not accompanied with any signs of Gnostic doctrine, and the work as a whole is orthodox in tone. They are set in the midst of "wolves," despised and slighted by the careless and worldly: there is frequent mention of "the persecuted," and of the duty of "bearing the cross." There appears to be no locus poenitentiae for serious sins excepting in the case of catechumens, and there is a notable "perfectionist" tone in many of the prayers. Charismata, and above all exorcisms, occupy a very important place: there is a vivid realization of the ministry of angels, and the angelic hierarchy is very complete. Great stress is laid upon virginity (although there is not a sign of monasticism), upon fasting (especially for the bishop), upon the regular attendance of the whole clerical body and the "more perfect" of the laity at the hours of prayer. The church buildings are very elaborate, and the baptistery is oblong, a form found apparently only here and in the Arabic Didascalia. Amongst the festivals mentioned are the Epiphany, Easter and Pentecost. With regard to the prayers, they are based upon forms common to this and other Church orders, but have many lengthy interpolations of an inflated and rhapsodic kind The bishop appears to rank far above the presbyters (more conspicuously so, for example, than in the Canons of Hippolytus), and the presbyters are still divided into two classes, those who are more learned and thuse |