Facing the same dangers, standing shoulder to shoulder in battle, and mingling with each other around the camp fires, the men of the several colonies came to know each other better, and this knowledge ripened into affection. The soldiers on their return home did much to disseminate the good feeling.

In the second place, the French and Indian War by annihilating all the claims of France to American soil removed the principal enemy that had rendered the protection of England necessary to the colonies.

In the third place, this war gave the colonists an experience in military affairs and a confidence in their own powers which emboldened them to dare open rebellion.

And in the fourth place, this war produced the debt which led to the taxation which was the most immediate cause of the outbreak.

2.

Various tyrannical acts of the king. These are given explicitly in the Declaration of Independence.

Some Pertinent Questions.

Name a country in the world's history that ever allowed its colonies representation in its home parliament or legislative body. Name one that does it today. Why do territories in this country desire to become states?

Name some country, other than England, which could have given birth to the United States. Prove your proposition.

The Duc de Choiseul, the French minister who signed the treaty whereby France yielded to England her claims to American soil, remarked after doing it, "That is the beginning of the end of English power in America." What did he mean? Upon what did he base his opinion? Why did France help the Americans in the Revolutionary War?

What is meant, in speaking of the colonies, by royal province? Charter government? Proprietary government?

What experience in law making did the colonists have? Where and when did the first representative assembly in America convene? Find in the Declaration of Independence an expression complaining of non-representation in parliament.

To the patriotic and far sighted men who had striven to form a union of the colonies, did the religious differences

which frustrated their plans seem fortunate or unfortunate? Can you see how it came about that we have no state church, that we enjoy religious freedom? Doesn't it seem that there must have been a Planner wiser than any man who was working out His own designs?

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION.

WHAT PRECEDED THEM.

The Revolutionary Period. The nation was born July 4, 1776. From that time until the adoption of the articles of confederation in 1781 the people of the United States carried on their governmental affairs by means of a congress "clothed with undefined powers for the general good."

This congress had, speaking "in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies," issued the declaration of independence; it had entered into an alliance with France; and it had prosecuted the war almost to a successful issue before it had received any definite warrant for its acts. Its acts were justified by necessity, and had their authority in the "common consent " of a majority of the people. During nearly all of the revolutionary war, the people of the colonies were largely "held together by their fears."

THE ARTICLES THEMSELVES.

Their history.-But these were pre-eminently a people of peace and good order. This is shown in part by the spirit and form of the declaration of independThey had no idea of allowing themselves to

ence.

lapse or drift into anarchy. They understood the necessity for a permanent government.

Accordingly, when, on the eleventh of June, 1776, a committee of congress was appointed to "abolish " one form of government by drafting a declaration of independence, another committee was appointed to frame a plan on which to "institute a new government."

After more than a month's deliberation this committee reported its plan, embodied in what is called articles of confederation. This plan was discussed from time to time, and finally, somewhat modified, was agreed to by congress, November 15, 1777. It was then submitted to the states for ratification.

In July, 1778, the articles were ratified by ten of the states. New Jersey ratified in November, 1778, and Delaware in February, 1779. But the articles were not to become binding until ratified by all the states, and Maryland did not authorize her delegates in congress to sign the instrument in ratification until March 1, 1781. (Maryland claims to have fought through the revolutionary war, not as a member but as an ally of the United States.)

Their peculiarities.-The articles of confederation were different from our present constitution, both in principle and in method of operation, as follows:

1. The nature of the government formed. The government was that of a "confederation of states," each retaining its sovereignty and independence. The union was declared to be a "firm league of friendship." It was to be perpetual.

2. The branches of government. Only one was provided for, a congress. No provision was made for executive or judicial officers apart from the congress itself. 3. The structure of the congress. The congress con

sisted of only one house or chamber. Members were elected for one year, subject to recall at any time, and they were paid by their respective states. No person was eligible to membership for more than three years in any period of six years. No state could be represented by "less than two, nor more than seven members." Each state had one vote.

4. The powers of congress. "The United States in congress assembled" had power to treat with foreign countries, to send and receive ambassadors, to determine peace and war. Congress was the last resort on appeal in all disputes between the states; could fix the standard of weights and measures, and of the fineness of coin; could establish and regulate postoffices; could ascertain and appropriate "the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States;" could borrow money "on the credit of the United States;" could agree upon the number of land forces and make requisition on each state for its quota; and could appoint a committee consisting of one member from each state, to sit during the vacations of congress.

5. Powers denied to the states. No state could enter into any treaty with another state or with a foreign nation, nor engage in war, except by consent of "the United States in congress assembled; " nor keep vessels of war or a standing army in time of peace, except such number as congress should deem necessary.

Reasons for the peculiarities.-Suffering breeds caution. Every one of the peculiarities was based upon distrust.

The people were afraid to trust their delegates. This is manifest in the shortness of the term, the provision for recall, the reserved right to control the delegates

by controlling their pay, and the limitation as to service.

The states were afraid of each other, especially were the small states distrustful of the large ones. This is evidenced in the provision that each state should have one vote. By this arrangement the states had equal power in the congress.

The people and the states were afraid of the general government. A central government was a necessity, but it was given only very limited powers. It passed "ordinances,” which had practically little more force than recommendations; it could not be said to enact laws. Congress could only recommend; it was reserved to the states individually to execute if they saw fit. Hence under the Articles there was no need of a national executive or a national judiciary.

It is to be observed, however, that with all their distrust, in spite of the fact that their colonial or state jealousies and habits had returned upon them, notwithstanding their specific statement in the instrument itself that "each state retains its sovereignty," the instinct of nationality was yet strong enough to cause them to continue in the general government the actual sovereign powers. Thus, the "United States" alone could treat with foreign nations, declare war, and make peace. Another great sovereign power, that of coining money, was unfortunately shared by the states.

Their defects.-The great defect in the articles of confederation was that they placed too little power in the hands of the general government. Although congress possessed the right to declare war, it could only apportion the quota of men to each state; the states raised the troops. And so on with the other powers. The government of the United States during the confed