An absolute monarchy is one in which the three functions of government as related to law-the legislative, executive, and judicial-are all vested in one person; examples, Russia and Turkey till recently, and some of the countries of Asia and Africa to-day.

A limited monarchy is one in which the sovereign's power is confined chiefly to executing the laws framed and interpreted by other departments; examples, England, and most of the other countries of Europe.

An oligarchy is that form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the hands of a few (oligos, few); example, the triumvirates of Rome.

An aristocracy is really a government by the best (aristos, the select, the best). This is the sense in which the word was first used. It has come to mean government by a privileged class. Aristocracy seldom, if ever, exists alone.

A democracy is that form of government in which the functions are administered directly by the people, only the clerical or ministerial work being done by officers, and they appointed by the people; examples, the old German tribes, some of the states of ancient Grecce, some of the present cantons of Switzerland, the early settlements of New England, and in a limited sense our own school districts and towns.

A republic is a representative democracy. A democracy is practicable only within a very limited area. When the area grows large the people must delegate much of work of government to representatives. Examples, the United States, each state in the Union, Switzerland, and most of the countries of America.

The Origin of Each Typical Form.-Monarchy and oligarchy both probably owe their existence to war. The successful chieftain or leader in war became the

king, and his retainers or followers became the privi leged classes. Those who were subdued either became slaves or were simply "the common people." Democracy had its beginnings, and flourishes best, in times of peace. The people, though they had to fight again and again to secure recognition, have really won their right to it by the arts of peace.

The Criteria of Good Government.-Among the tests by which the goodness or badness of a government, or form of government, may be determined, are the following:

1. A good government is stable. Stability is the foundation of worthiness of character in governments as well as in persons. The basis of progress is permanence—one cannot grow wise, or rich, or strong, unless he can preserve at least a part of what he gains. "Conduciveness to progress includes the whole excellence of government."*

2. A good government tends to increase the sum of good qualities in the governed. Strength comes from exercise. Therefore a government is excellent in proportion as it works up to the possibilities of a people for self-government and fits them to go on advancing in intellectual and moral power.

3. A good government has proper machinery. This should be "adapted to take advantage of the amount of good qualities which may at any time exist, and make them instrumental to right purposes. ""*

"Representative Government the Ideally Best Polity."-Every student who has access to Mills' Representative Government should read the chapter with the heading at the beginning of this paragraph. He combats the proposition, "if a good despot could be insured, des

*Mills Representative Government.

potic monarchy would be the best form of government." Granting that much good might be done, he shows that the very passivity of the people must result in deterioration, "that is, if the nation had ever attained anything to decline from." On the other hand, he shows that participation in public affairs gives a mental and moral training otherwise unattainable. After showing the nature of the mental development acquired, he says: "Still more salutary is the moral part of the instruction afforded by the participation of the private citizen, if even rarely, in public functions. He is called upon, while so engaged, to weigh interests not his own; to be guided, in case of conflicting claims by another rule than his private partialities; to apply, at every turn, principles and maxims which have for their reason of existence the general good; and he usually finds associated with him in the same work minds more familiarized than his own with these ideas and operations, whose study it will be to supply reasons to his understanding, and stimulation to his feeling for the general good. He is made to feel himself one of the public, and whatever is their interest to be his interest. Where this school of public spirit does not exist a neighbor, not being an ally or an associate, since he is never engaged in any common undertaking for the joint benefit, is therefore only a rival."

* * *

Dangers in Each Form of Government.-While each of the typical forms has merits of its own,-the monarchy having stability, the aristocracy securing the benefit of inherited good qualities, and democracy the advantages referred to in the preceding paragraph-there is danger in each form. Monarchy continually tends toward that inconsiderate exercise of power which we call tyranny, Aristocracy tends toward oligarchy; govern

ment by the best is prone to decline into government by the few without regard to qualification. And democracy is in danger of degenerating into mob rule.

Every Government Aims to be Aristocratic. That is, each government in theory seeks to have those rule who are best fitted to manage public affairs. This is the thought, for instance, in our requiring certain qualifications in voters and office-holders.

Our Own Government.-We fondly believe that our own government combines to a high degree the excellencies of all the forms.

Our hope for stability lies chiefly in the fact that our corner stone is eternal justice, the equality of all men before the law. Even the severe shock of civil war has been endured, and our system is more strongly intrenched in the confidence of the world than ever before.

We believe in the potency of good blood and good training. But the worth of each individual must be shown, it will not be taken for granted. We will neither lift him up because he is "his father's son," nor cast him down because his father was unworthy.

Situated as we are, with no powerful rivals near us, with the ocean between us and the countries of Europe, the common defense requires no great standing army to eat up our substance and to menace our liberties. Living in the north temperate zone, the belt of highest civilization, in a country capable of producing almost everything desirable, there is every reason to believe that, if we are true to ourselves and our opportunities, we may long enjoy prosperity and peace.

Debate.

Resolved, That universal suffrage is dangerous to the well being of society.

PART V.

COMMERCIAL LAW.

RESPONSIBILITY.

ignorance of the law is no excuse.

At first sight this would seem unjust, since no one but a lawyer can be expected to have much legal knowledge. But as law is simply common sense applied, the exercise of ordinary judgment is usually sufficent to enable a person to act safely.

To present a few of the more common principles of commercial law, is the purpose of the following pages.

CHAPTER XXXI.

CONTRACTS.

Definitions.-A contract is an agreement between two or more parties, containing on the one hand an offer and on the other an acceptance.

Contracts are express or implied. An express contract is one whose terms are definitely stated in words; an implied contract is one whose terms are understood from the circumstances. A written contract is express; an oral contract may be express or implied.

Fundamental Principles.-Every one able to contract is free to enter into any agreement not forbidden by law. Every such person is bound to fulfill every legal contract that he makes.

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