2. The Final Step.- After two years from the time of declaring his intention, provided that he has resided in the United States continuously for five years, and also at least one year within the state or territory wherein the court is held, he may make and sign a petition stating his residence, age, the names of his children, etc., and declaring his intention to renounce all allegiance to foreign powers and to reside permanently in the United States. This petition must be verified by the affidavits of two citizens, bearing witness as to his residence and character. Ninety or more days later, the applicant appears before the court and there upon oath renounces all allegiance, as declared in his statement of intention, and swears to support the constitution of the United States. If he has borne any hereditary title, he must renounce it. He and two citizen witnesses must be examined by the court. The applicant must be able to speak English, unless he has made proper homestead entry upon public land. These proceedings are recorded, and he is given a certificate of naturalization. See pages 290 and 291.

Status of Minors.-The naturalization of a man confers citizenship upon his wife and upon such of his children as are minors at the time. A child of his born in this country, either before or after his naturalization, is a “natural-born" citizen. This is also the case if the child is born on the ocean while the parents are coming to this country, provided that they are coming with the intention of seeking citizenship. If an alien dies after declaring his intention, his wife and minor children may be naturalized without making a declaration of intention.

Losing Citizenship.-By treaties with Austria, Baden, Hesse, Bavaria, Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Mexico. Sweden, Denmark, and some other countries, it is provided that "a renewal of domicile in the mother country, with the intent not to return (and two years' residence is presumptive evidence of such intent), shall work renewal of the former allegiance."

In some of the treaties it is further provided that when the subject has emigrated to avoid military duty, "the right to exact which was complete before his departure, such service may be enforced on his return in spite of intervening naturalization." (See also U. S. Revised Statutes of 1878, §§ 2165-74.)

HOW CITIZENS ABROAD ARE PROTECTED.

One of the things that makes citizenship desirable is the protection which it secures. This is particularly grateful when one is in a foreign country. What a feeling of strength and security one has when far away from home among strangers to know that his rights must be respected, to realize that behind him is the might of the nation!

Passports.-A United States passport is an instrument in writing, issued by the secretary of state and under his seal informing the world that the bearer is a citizen of the United States, that he travels under its protection. That passport is a means of identification for the bearer and secures to him all the rights and privileges guaranteed to citizens of the United States by treaties with the country in which he may be traveling.

Passports, as a means of ingress or egress, are now required in only a few countries of Europe. For the convenience of citizens who may have left home without securing passports, arrangements have been made whereby they may be obtained from our representatives in foreign countries.

Another kind of passport is that for American ships. Each ship-master obtains one before leaving for a foreign port. It tells the nationality of the ship, shows that she is under the protection of the United States.

Consuls. These are the business representatives of the government residing in foreign lands. They are "the guardians of their countrymen against the vexations, injuries, and injustices of the country where they reside; and they exercise certain police powers over all the individuals of their nation" within their respective consulates.

The origin of consulates dates back to the time of the Crusades. They were instituted by the great commercial cities of the Mediteranean. The Pisans, Venetians, and Genoese had trading places in various parts of Asia, and they secured from the princes of these countries where these trading-posts were located the right to have judges or arbitrators of their own nation located at each of these posts who were privileged to settle disputes between citizens of these cities in accordance with their own laws. At first, then, the consuls were only arbitrators in commercial matters. But their prerogatives

have increased until now they are intrusted with the protection of merchants of their country in their relations with the countries to which they come to trade.

In some countries, such as China, Siam, and Turkey, our consuls are by treaty invested with judicial powers. They try and punish American citizens for crimes committed there.

Incidentally it is the duty of a consul to provide for sick, disabled or destitute American seamen, and to send them home to the United States; to receive and take care of the personal property of any American citizen who dies within his consulate, and to forward to the secretary of state the balance remaining after the necessary funeral expenses, to be held in trust for the heirs. (See also page 350.)

Some of the consular reports contain very valuable information regarding the products and industries of the countries where they are located. These reports can sometimes be obtained in limited numbers through a member of congress.

HOW WE ARE PROTECTED AT HOME.

Life. Our lives are protected very carefully, not only against crime, but also against accident. Taking human life is made the worst crime and suffers the severest punishment. Deathdealing weapons, such as revolvers and dirks, cannot lawfully be carried concealed. Poisons are cautiously sold, and usually a record is made of the sale. If death results from accident the person to blame is held responsible. But every precaution is taken to prevent accidents. Lamps are provided for streets; fast driving is prohibited; horses are not allowed to be left standing unhitched; business dangerous to life, such as powdermaking, must be carried on at a distance from residences; railroads are required to stop trains at crossings, to ring a bell in going through a town, to carry axes and buckets to be used in case of fire; steamboats must be inspected, and must be supplied with life-boats, life-preservers, and other appliances. Health.-To protect our health precautions are taken against the outbreak of preventable diseases, such as diphtheria, typhoid fever, etc., by requiring cleanliness in yards and alleys; and against small pox by requiring vaccination. The government also supports hospitals for the care of the sick.

Reputation.-To secure to each person as good a reputation as his character will warrant it is made a crime to make false

and malicious statements about any one. If spoken, the malicious statement is called slander; if written or printed, it is called libel. The essential elements of these crimes are malice and injury. If a false statement is made without intent to injure, it is not slander. And a true statement injuring another must not be made except for a proper purpose.

Liberty. This includes all those rights guaranteed in the Bills of Rights of the several constitutions, and the right to come and go without restraint, the right to choose a vocation and to change it, and other rights. To appreciate the protection received in this direction, the student should read up the history of each of the guarantees, and of caste, curfew, passports, etc.

Property.-"The right of private property covers the acquiring, using, and disposing of anything that a person may call his own, including time and labor." A person's property rights may be interfered with in so many ways that many laws are necessary to protect him. A brief outline of commercial law is given elsewhere.

HOW ELECTIONS ARE CONDUCTED.

Electors.-The voters of each state are designated by the constitution thereof. (See page 298.)

Time. The time of elections is usually also a matter of constitutional provision. The local (town, village, and city) elections are, in most if not all of the states, held in the spring; probably because the public improvements contemplated are to be made chiefly in the summer. The general elections are held in the fall. This may be partly at least, in order that the official year may begin with the calendar year.

Place.-Towns, villages, and city wards are the usual election precincts, but any of these may be divided if necessary. The location of the polling-place is determined by the convenience of the voters.

Supervision.-Each polling-place is in charge of supervisors of election, usually three. In towns and villages, the regular trustees supervise the elections. In cities, three persons for each precinct are appointed to act by the council or by the mayor. The supervisors are assisted by one or two clerks.

Registration.-To prevent fraud, it is required that a person shall have been a resident of the precinct in which he

offers to vote for at least ten days. In the cities, where population fluctuates greatly, it has been found necessary to require voters to register before the day of election; that is, to enroll their names and places of residence with the officers of election. Some states require all voters to register.

Notices.-Due notice of the times and places of registration and election is given, at least ten days in advance.

Methods of Voting.-The voting is done either by ballot or by machine, the two chief reasons being, (a) to permit the voter to express his choice uninfluenced by any one else; (b) to facilitate the voting.

Voting Machines.-The machines are expensive, but have the advantage of requiring fewer election officers, of securing an absolutely fair count, and of saving the time and care needed for counting ballots. The voter, screened from view, moves a knob or lever for each candidate for whom he wishes to vote. Ingenious devices prevent his voting more than once, and register the vote as soon as it is cast. After the polls are closed the back of the machine is opened, and the total vote for each candidate can be read at once from the numbering dials.

The Australian Ballot.-Before 1888 the most common method of voting in the United States was by ballots printed and circulated by party workers; and each voter could generally vote secretly or show others how he was voting, whichever he chose to do. But within a few years nearly all the states adopted some form or modification of the Australian ballot system. The main features of the system are as follows: 1. The printing of ballots at state expense, generally with the names of all the nominees of all parties on one large ballot, with appropriate blank spaces for the insertion of other names. 2. Enforced secrecy in the preparation of the ballot by the voters, and their casting of the votes in the presence of the election officers only.

The minor details vary in different states. In some the names of the candidates for each office are grouped together and arranged in alphabetical order, so that the voter must make a separate mark for each man voted for. In many the names are arranged in columns by parties, all the candidates of each party being in one column, so that the voter can vote for all by making a single mark.

Each voter is given a ballot by the election officers, retires