livered an energetic charge to the grand jury on the question of independence, which was published throughout the colonies and had great influence. He had produced several other political charges and pamphlets, when in 1778 he was elected a delegate to the continental congress, of which he was a prominent member till his death. He left a minute narrative of the preliminary and current events of the revolution, which was prepared for the press and published by his son, Gov. John Drayton (2 vols. 8vo., Charleston, 1821).

DREAM, the series of thoughts which occupy the mind during sleep. The whole animal kingdom is characterized in its sensuous relations with the external world by two distinct, and, so far as the organs involving these relations are concerned, opposite conditions, the one of wakefulness, and the other of sleep. Within certain limits this alternation of action and repose presents itself as a general law of animal organization, more or less varied, according to the simpleness or complexity of the functions involved; and hence it is found that the quantity and regularity of sleep bear a close relation to the degree of development of animal life. To those vertebrata in which the muscular and nervous tissues exist in their most complete conditions, sleep is much more important than to those types of organic existence which, while endowed with some of the functions of animal organization, are for the most part devoted to the simple process of assimilation. Indeed, a point is at last reached where no evidence of the phenomenon of sleep is presented. In man, in whom the voluntary and involuntary functions exist in their most complete development, and in whom their operations are complicated by the addition of those of the intellect, the periods of waking and repose are most fully marked, and their presence most important to the welfare of the individual. In sleep, the organs of sense, the power of voluntary motion, and the active powers of the mind suspend in a great degree their operation, in order to collect by rest new strength. The approach of sleep is announced by diminished activity of mind and loss of the power of attention. The senses become blunted to external impressions, and we feel an unconquerable desire for stillness and repose. Our ideas grow confused, our sensations obscure, our sight fails, hearing grows dull and uncertain, the eyelids close, the joints relax, and the body instinctively assumes an easy position. The vital activity, however, is in full vigor; the functions of the heart and the lungs, breathing and the circulation of the blood, continue, but are more calm and equable than during the waking season; the nutrition of the system, the secretion and absorption of the juices, are also carried on undisturbedly and perfectly. Hence sleep is not really a state of total inactivity, and only bears a very partial resemblance to death. A person awaking from profound sleep finds himself refreshed, and his bodily and intellectual functions restored to their usual vigor. If

the sleep, however, be partial and disturbed, these results do not follow, but the waking state is accompanied by a sense of lassitude and fatigue. It is in this latter condition that dreams take place, and hence Dugald Stewart has properly defined dreaming to be that condition of sleep in which we have nearly or quite lost all volition over the bodily organs, but in which those mental powers necessary for volition retain a partial degree of activity. M. Perquin observed in the hospital of Montpellier in 1821 a case which throws considerable light upon the actual condition of the brain in profound sleep, and in that in which dreams occur. A female aged 26 had lost a portion of her scalp, skull bone, and dura mater, under an attack of malignant disease, by means of which a portion of the brain was exposed in such a manner as admitted of inspection. When this patient was in a dreamless state, or in profound sleep, her brain was motionless, and lay within the cranium. When the sleep was imperfect, and the mind was agitated by dreams, her brain moved and protruded from the cranium, forming a cerebral hernia. This protrusion was still greater whenever the dreams, as reported by herself, were most active, and when she was perfectly awake, especially if engaged in active or sprightly conversation, it attained its fullest development; nor did this protrusion occur in jerks, alternating with recessions, as if caused by arterial blood, but remained permanent while the conversation continued. It is clearly shown by this case, so far as the appearance of the brain is concerned, that during profound sleep the active state of the mental faculty ceases, but that, in that condition in which dreams occur, some of the mental powers are sufficiently active to excite a motion in the cerebral organs, less in degree than in a state of full wakefulness, but more than in a condition of profound sleep. Though the power of volition does not seem to be altogether absent in sleep, the will appears to lose its influence over those faculties of the mind and members of the body which during our waking hours are subject to its authority. Hence it may be inferred that all our mental operations which are independent of the will continue during sleep. The senses may be considered as the media by means of which the spirit within is brought in contact with the external world, and comes to have a knowledge of actual existence. Although the predisposing causes of dreams may be diverse, yet they are generally referable to some peculiar condition of the body, and are often called into action through the agency of the external senses. Dr. Gregory relates that, having occasion to apply a bottle of hot water to his feet upon retiring for the night, he dreamed that he was making a journey to Mount Etna, and found the heat insufferable. Dr. Reid, having had a blister applied to his head, dreamed that he was scalped by a party of Indians. M. Giron de Buzereingues made a series of experiments to test how far he could determine his

dreams at will by operating upon the mind through the medium of the senses. With this view he left his knees uncovered on falling asleep, and dreamed that he was travelling at night in a diligence with a vivid impression of cold knees produced by the rigor of the weather. Waller relates the case of a gentleman who was ever after a victim to terror on account of a dream, which he could never look upon except as a real occurrence. He was lying in bed, and as he imagined quite awake, when he felt the distinct impression of a hand placed upon his shoulder, which produced such a state of alarm that he durst not move in bed. The shoulder which had experienced the impression had been uncovered, and the cold to which it was exposed produced the sensation. Persons in whom one of the senses is defective frequently have their dreams modified by this circumstance. Darwin relates the case of a deaf gentleman who in his dreams always appeared to converse by means of the fingers or in writing. He never had the impression of hearing speech, and for the same reason one who has been blind from his birth never dreams of visible objects. Sensations produced by the condition of the digestive apparatus have a very marked influence on the phenomena of dreams. When the functions of the digestive organs are properly performed, the dreams, if affected at all from this cause, are pleasant in their character; if however there exists any disturbance in this part of the system, the dreams are apt to assume a painful character, usually proportioned in intensity to the amount of disturbance of the alimentary canal. To this class of sensations may be referred those dreams produced by the use of opium and intoxicating drinks, which in part at least act by the impression made upon the digestive organs. Dreams induced by this latter cause are remarkable for the extravagance of the phantasmagoria they exhibit, frequently presenting shapes of the most fugitive and fanciful character. The dreamer often seems endowed with such elasticity that it appears as if he could easily mount to and float upon the clouds above him. De Quincey, in the "Confessions of an Opium Eater," has portrayed in the most vivid manner the effect of that narcotic in the production of dreams. "Under the connecting feeling of tropical heat and vertical sunlights I brought together all creatures, birds, beasts, reptiles, all trees and plants, usages and appearances, that are found in all tropical regions, and assembled them together in China and Hindostan. From kindred feelings I soon brought Egypt and all her gods under the same law. I was stared at, hooted at, grinned at, chattered at by monkeys, by parroquets, by cockatoos. I ran into pagodas, and was fixed for centuries at the summit or in the secret rooms. I was the idol, I was the priest. I was worshipped, I was sacrificed. I fled from the wrath of Brahma through all the forests of Asia. Vishnu hated me, Seeva lay in wait for me. I came suddenly upon Isis and Osiris. I had done a deed, they said, at which the ibis

and the crocodile trembled. I was buried for 1,000 years in stone coffins with mummies and sphinxes, in narrow chambers at the heart of eternal pyramids. I was kissed with cancerous kisses by crocodiles, and lay confounded with unutterable slimy things among reeds and Nilotic mud." In these hallucinations it will be observed how completely all ordinary ideas of time and space are annihilated. Indeed, De Quincey, in. noticing this curious psychological phenomenon, says: "The sense of space, and in the end the sense of time, were both powerfully affected. Buildings, landscapes, &c., were exhibited in proportions so vast as the bodily eye is not fitted to receive. Space swelled and was amplified to an extent of unutterable infinity. This, however, did not disturb me so much as the expansion of time. I sometimes seemed to have lived for 70 or 100 years in a single night." Nor does it require the aid of a narcotic as powerful as opium, or indeed any thing beyond what ordinarily occurs in a state of dreaming, to create ideas of time and space apparently as incongruous as those narrated by the opium eater. The sleeper who is suddenly awakened by a loud rap does not begin and terminate his dream with this simple occurrence, but experiences a long train of events requiring hours and even days for their fulfilment, and which are all evidently occasioned by the sound which awakens him, and concentrated within the brief space of time it occupies. A person who was suddenly aroused from sleep by a few drops of water sprinkled in his face, dreamed of the events of an entire life in which happiness and sorrow were mingled, and which finally terminated with an altercation upon the borders of an extensive lake, into which his exasperated companion, after a considerable struggle, succeeded in plunging him. It is evident that the association of ideas in this case which produced the lake, the altercation, and the sudden plunge, was occasioned by the water sprinkled upon the face, and the presumption is probable that the whole machinery of an entire life was due to the same cause. Dr. Abercrombie relates a similar case of a gentleman who dreamed that he had enlisted as a soldier, joined his regiment, deserted, was apprehended, carried back, tried, condemned to be shot, and was at last led out to execution. After the usual preparations a gun was fired, and he awoke with the report to discover that the cause of his disturbance was a noise in the adjacent room. Dreams are often produced by the waking associations which precede them; thus the writer had occasion to send a letter to a relative in a neighboring city, and upon retiring to rest dreamed that he was walking in the principal thoroughfare of the city where his correspondent resided, and accidentally meeting him, held a long conversation, upon subjects, however, in no way connected with the one which gave rise to the correspondence. So, too, dreams may be char acteristic of the peculiar idiosyncrasies of the dreamers: a miser will dream of his gold, a

philosopher of science, a merchant of his ventures, the musician of melody, and the lover of his mistress. Tartinia, a distinguished violin player, is said to have composed his "Devil's Sonata" under the inspiration of a dream, in which the devil appeared to him and invited him to a trial of skill upon his own instrument, which he accepted, and awoke with the music of the sonata so vividly impressed upon his mind that he had no difficulty in committing it to paper. In like manner Coleridge composed his poem "Kubla Khan" in a dream, of which the following is his account: "In the summer of 1797 the author, then in ill health, had retired to a lonely farm house between Porlock and Linton, on the Exmoor confines of Somerset and Devonshire. In consequence of a slight indisposition an anodyne had been prescribed, from the effects of which he fell asleep in his chair at the moment he was reading the following sentence, or words of the same substance, in Purchas's 'Pilgrimage': 'Here the Khan Kubla commanded a palace to be built and a stately garden thereunto, and thus 10 miles of fertile ground were enclosed within a wall."" Coleridge continued for about 3 hours apparently in a profound sleep, during which he had the most vivid impression that he had composed between 200 and 300 lines. On awaking he had so distinct a remembrance of the whole that he seized his pen and wrote down the lines which are still preserved. Unfortunately, at this moment he was called out of the room to attend to some business which occupied more than an hour. Upon his return he found to his surprise and chagrin that, although some vague idea of the vision was still present, yet, with the exception of some 8 or 10 scattered and fragmentary lines and images, the whole had been obliterated from his memory. Instances like the above occasionally occur where the mind in a state of waking is aided by the processes carried on during sleep, but these are rare. As a general rule dreams are wanting in coherence and unsubstantial in reasoning. Nothing is more common than for the mind in dreams to blend together objects and events which could not have an associated existence in reality. The faces of friends long since dead and events long since past rise before the mind with all the vividness of real existence, and fail to excite surprise by their incongruity because the mind views them without the association of ideas which in a waking state would place them at such a distance from the present that no cognizance could be taken of them except as very remote events. It is the absence of these associated ideas, which in a state of wakefulness fix the limits as to time and space of each fact of which the mind has a knowledge, that prevents any surprise at the occurrence of unusual events in dreams, and constitutes one of their most remarkable features. The popular belief that in dreams an insight is frequently given of coming events is shared by many well-informed persons, and is supposed to be corroborated by many re

markable cases; from among them the following is selected. Mr. D., residing in Edinburgh, informed his aunt one evening of his intention to join a sailing party the next morning upon the firth of Forth. The lady retired to rest and dreamed repeatedly of seeing a boat sink and those on board drowning. When wakened she went to the bedside of her nephew, and with great difficulty obtained his promise to remain at home. In the afternoon a violent storm arose, the boat was upset, and all that were in it went to the bottom. The earliest mention of dreams is in the Scriptures and in the poems of Homer, in both of which a supernatural origin is generally ascribed to them. By the ancients, indeed, dreams were almost universally regarded as coming from the other world, and from both good and evil sources. A great number of instances are on record in the Greek and Latin classics of remarkable dreams, which show how widely the faith in the spiritual nature of dreaming was disseminated. The night before the assassination of Julius Cæsar, his wife Calphurnia dreamed that her husband fell bleeding across her knees. On the night that Attila died, the emperor Marcian at Constantinople dreamed that he saw the bow of the Hunnish conqueror broken asunder. Cicero relates a story of two Arcadians, who, travelling together, arrived at Megara and went to separate lodgings, one of them to an inn, the other to a private house. In the course of the night the latter dreamed that his friend appeared to him and begged for help because the innkeeper was preparing to murder him. The dreamer awoke, but not considering the matter worthy of attention, went to sleep again. A second time his friend appeared, telling him that assistance would be too late, for the murder had already been committed. The murdered person also stated that his body had been put into a cart and covered with manure, and that an attempt would be made to take it out of the city the next morning. The dreamer awoke, went to the magistrates, had the cart searched, when the body was found and the murderer brought to justice. Dreams were even allowed to influence legislation. During the Marsian war (90 B. C.) the Roman senate ordered the temple of Juno Sospita to be rebuilt in consequence of a dream of Cecelia Metella, the wife of the consul Appius Claudius Pulcher. Some of the fathers of the Christian church attached considerable importance to dreams. Tertullian thought they came from God as one species of prophecy, though many dreams may be attributed to the agency of demons. He believed that future honors and dignities, medical remedies, thefts, and treasures had been occasionally revealed by dreams. St. Augustine relates a dream by which Gennadius, a Carthaginian physician, was convinced of the immortality of the soul, by the apparition to him in his sleep of a young man, who reasoned with him on the subject, and argued that as he could see when his bodily eyes were closed in sleep, so

he would find that when his bodily senses were extinct in death he would see and hear and feel with the senses of his spirit.

DREBBEL, CORNELIS VAN, a Dutch philosopher and inventor, born in Alkmaar in North Holland in 1572, died in London in 1634. His inventive faculty raised him from a peasant boy to the favor of the emperors Rudolph II. and Ferdinand II., and of James I. of England. He lived in London from the year 1620, devoted entirely to scientific labors. Numerous marvels are related of him, but it is only certain that he possessed extraordinary knowledge of the principles of optics and mechanics. He invented several philosophical instruments, among which, it is said, were the compound microscope and a thermometer consisting of a glass tube containing water connected with a bulb containing air. His contemporaries say that he displayed to King James a glass globe in which by means of the 4 elements he had produced perpetual motion, and that by means of machinery he imitated rain, thunder, lightning, and cold, and was able quickly to exhaust a river or lake. He discovered a bright scarlet dye for woollens and silks, which was introduced into France by the founders of the Gobelin manufactures; and the invention of the telescope has been ascribed to him, but on no good grounds. Drebbel left 2 treatises which appeared first in Dutch (Leyden, 1608); afterward in Latin, under the title Tractatus duo: De Natura Elementorum; De Quinta Essentia (Hamburg, 1621); and again in French (Paris, 1673).

DREDGING, the process of deepening harbors and channels by excavating the sediment that collects in them; the term is also applied to the scooping up of oysters, or any thing else, from the bottom. The force of running water has sometimes been applied to wash out the sediment by which channels become choked; and to render this more efficient, the drainage waters and even the ebb tide have, in places adapted for this operation, been held back by floodgates, and the waters at last let out have rushed with great violence through the channels, sweeping forward the materials that obstructed them. This is the principle of flashing or flushing applied to sewers, &c., and is without question the most efficient mode of dredging in the few situations favorably formed for its application. In the artificial improvements introduced into some of the harbors in England, scouring basins have been constructed especially for this purpose, as for instance at Ramsgate, Dover, &c. To loosen the sediments, so that they might be more easily swept out by the tide or by sluices, the Dutch long since contrived a floating frame to which bars were attached, that went down to the bottom and stirred up the mud, as the machine moved along with the current. These are perhaps the oldest dredging machines. Variously formed scoops have been in use in different places, which as they are drawn over the bottom rake up the sediment as with a hoe, and gather it in the hollow part of the scoop or in a bag of

leather attached to the instrument, from which it is discharged when the whole is hoisted to the surface by the rope attached to the scoop. The apparatus is made more efficient by being constructed of large size and worked by a steam engine. A hull is then provided for the machinery, and a scow is employed alongside to receive the mud as it is raised and dumped. Instead of the single large scoop, a line of buckets has been substituted, working around pulleys at the ends of a long frame, which lies over the side of the hull, and one end of which can be lowered down to the bottom or hoisted up when not in use. The buckets, as they pass down empty, suspended on the chain, scoop into the bottom and become filled, and, coming up on the upper side of the frame, discharge themselves as they turn over its higher extremity. The mud falls into troughs, which convey it into the scow alongside. As the channel is deepened, the lower end of the frame is let down accordingly; or if any obstruction impedes the motion of the buckets, this end of the frame is lifted by the pulley, till the chain moves on again. The machine has been made with a frame on each side of the hull, and both kept in operation together.-In another dredging machine the excavator is a wheel about 24 feet in diameter, very strongly braced with many arms, and set in a well hole about 3 feet wide and 26 feet long across the forward part of the hull. It works in boxes which can be raised or lowered by chains and windlass as the depth of water requires. Upon its periphery are the scooping buckets, which are provided with a hinged bottom secured by a latch. As each bucket in the revolution of the wheel approaches the top, it lifts the upper end of a small discharge trough, which falling back causes the bottom of the bucket to be unlatched and its contents to drop out. These are received by the small trough, and immediately pass through it into the larger one that conveys them to the scow. The hull is drawn forward by the steam engine at the precise rate required by the progress of the excavation. It is stated that 1,200 cubic yards of gravel bottom have been dug in a day with a 24-foot wheel provided with 4 buckets.Dredging for oysters, &c., is performed with an iron rake or scoop at the end of a long pole, and furnished also with a rope by which it is drawn forward. One man pushes the dredge down by the pole, and another draws it along the bottom and raises it into the boat with what it has gathered. For deep water the handle is dispensed with, and the dredge is made like a basket of iron rods, so shaped as to fill itself when dragged upon the bottom. Naturalists make use of dredges of much better construction for collecting specimens of shellfish, &c., from the bottom of the sea. A figure of a small one is given by Woodward in his "Manual of the Mollusca," which is highly recommended for general use. It is a sort of box of 2 strips of boiler plate iron 2 feet long and each 2 inches wide, fastened at their ends to 2 iron rods of

The

about 4 inch diameter and 8 inches long. Each end of the rods is bent over at an angle of 145°, and drawn out to a point. The sides placed upon these consequently flare outward, their lower edges coming within 4 inches of each other. These edges are pierced with holes by which the bag is attached in which the materials are gathered up. The part of this bag in contact with the dredge is a network of cod line; the remainder is of raw hide. The net is to allow the escape of the water. The handles are forked iron rods, the double ends securely hooked round the rods that form the ends of the machine, and the single ends provided with rings, meeting in the centre of the box as they are folded down when not in use. rings are for attaching the towing line to the dredge. With machines of similar construction, but much larger than the one described, the bottom of the sea has been extensively explored by English_naturalists off the coasts of Great Britain and Norway. In dredging on coral ground, Mr. Cuming, according to Woodward, employed a 3-inch hawser, and had a patent buoy attached to the dredge by a 14-inch rope. Whenever the hawser parts, the buoy and smaller rope secure the recovery of the dredge. In water of 50 to 300 fathoms the dredging can be done only in moderate weather. As the vessel lies to, the dredge is thrown over to windward and is dragged along as she drifts off, spare line being given out as necessary. It is hauled up by block and tackle, or if it get foul, the rope is passed into the boat, which is run out over the dredge and trips it. The contents of the dredge are washed and sifted with 2 copper wire sieves, one" inch," the other very fine. The sediments of the fine sieve are kept for examination for minute shells. Prof. Edward Forbes prepared a form of "dredging papers," which are employed for recording the names and number of species obtained, the depth, locality, nature of the bottom (ground), and whether the specimens are living or dead. The latter are often found in deeper waters than the living individuals. The following directions are given for treating the shellfish obtained by dredging. They should be at once boiled, and the animal removed unless wanted for examination. The bivalves gape, and require to be tied with cotton; the opercula of the univalves should be secured in their apertures with wool. The small univalves may be put up in spirit or glycerine to save time. In warm climates flies and ants assist in removing the animal matter from the spiral shells. Chloride of lime may be employed to deodorize them. Full instructions for collecting and preserving shells may be found in the Journal de conchyliologie for 1850, p. 215, and 1851, pp. 182, 226.

DRELINCOURT, CHARLES, a French Protestant divine, born in Sedan, July 10, 1595, died in Paris, Nov. 3, 1669. He pursued his studies in his native town and in Saumur, preached for 2 years near Langres, and in 1620 became pastor at Charenton, near Paris. He

soon distinguished himself as a preacher, being one of the first of the reformed ministry who treated their texts in a practical light, instead of discussing them in the doctrinal and abstract way proper to a theological seminary. Some of his writings, especially his book of "Consolations against the Fear of Death," which has been translated into English and German, are still in use as books of devotion. It was to promote the sale of the English translation of this work that De Foe wrote his celebrated fictitious account of the apparition of Mrs. Veal, who came from the other world on purpose to recommend the perusal of "Drelincourt on Death."

DRENTHE, the poorest and least populous province of the Netherlands, bounded E. by Hanover, N. by Groningen, W. by Friesland, and S. by Overyssel; area, 1,029 sq. m.; pop. in 1858, 94,080. A considerable part of the province is occupied with marshes, heaths, and sand banks, but it yields in sufficient quantities buckwheat and potatoes, upon which the inhabitants subsist almost exclusively. The chief wealth of Drenthe consists in its horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry, all of which are esteemed of superior quality. It has manufactories of woollen fabrics, and its trade is facilitated by a canal from Assen to the Zuyder Zee. The principal rivers are the Vecht, Hunse, and Aa. The chief places are Assen, the capital (pop. about 2,500), Meppel (pop. 6,500), and Coevorden (pop. 2,500).

DRESDEN, the capital of the kingdom of Saxony and of a circle of its own name, situated on both banks of the Elbe, in a fertile valley, noted as the richest wine district of Saxony, and in the vicinity of a picturesque country celebrated under the name of the Saxon Switzerland; lat. 51° 6' N., long. 13° 44' E.; 116 m. by railway S. E. from Berlin, and 72 m. E. from Leipsic; pop. of the circle in 1855, 535,531, of whom 525,202 were Lutherans; of the city, including the garrison, 108,732. Steamboats here navigate the Elbe, and 5 railways connect the city with Berlin, Leipsic, Breslau, Prague, and Tharandt-the last to be continued to Freiberg. Dresden seems to have been originally a village of Wendish fishermen, and nearly 500 Wends still form a part of the population. As early as 1216 it was mentioned as a city, and in 1539, when Henry the Pious introduced the reformed religion, it had already passed through many vicissitudes, of which the great fire of 1491 was the most disastrous. After the fire a new town arose, which was fortified by George the Bearded in 1520-28, and by Maurice the Elector in 1545, and embellished by all succeeding sovereigns, especially by Augustus II. and III., kings of Poland and electors of Saxony, who formed the famous picture gallery which is now one of the greatest attractions of the city. In the 17th and 18th centuries, especially during the 7 years' war, the city was afflicted by pestilence, famine, and the worst calamities of warfare; and it had to undergo a