word in many other languages having a similar etymological significance), the quarter in which the heavenly bodies rise. Due east is the direction toward the east, precisely at right angles to a horizontal meridian line; the reverse direction is due west. An object is said to bear due east when it is seen exactly in this direction; but it is said to be due east when it is on the same parallel of latitude as the observer, i. e., when it may be connected with the observer by a line every point of which runs due east and west. An object that is due east will in N. latitudes bear N. of E., unless it be very near the observer, or he be very near the equator, for in other cases the parallel of latitude curves to the north, keeping at the same distance from the N. pole. A column of smoke, for example, over New York city, could it be seen at Nauvoo, would bear 54° N. of E., and smoke rising from Nauvoo would bear from New York 54° N. of W. The bearing is the direction in which a great circle from the observer through the object starts from the observer; while the course or actual direction is the direction of a line to the object cutting every meridian at the same angle. Madagascar is in a S. E. direction from New York, but bears due east. "Bearing" is sometimes used in the sense of course or actual direction instead of in the sense here given. East is a different direction for every spot on the earth's surface; at the poles there is no east or west; nor among the stars, except by reference to the nearest part of the earth's surface. EAST FELICIANA, a N. E. parish of Louisiana, bordering on the Mississippi and Amite rivers; area, about 480 sq. m.; pop. in 1855, 14,101, of whom 10,266 were slaves. It has a moderately uneven surface, and the soil is well watered, fertile, and easily tilled. There are forests of pine, oak, and bay, and extensive plantations of sugar and cotton. In 1855 the productions were 16,970 bales of cotton, 2,464 hogsheads of sugar, 448,475 bushels of Indian corn, and 3,857 barrels of molasses. Value of real estate, $2,079,735. The parish contains a lunatic asylum and a college. Capital, Clinton. EAST INDIA COMPANIES. The establishment of direct trade with the Indies was the aim of all the most enterprising cities and governments of early Europe. The Italian republics were long foremost in the trade, but they never entirely overcame the obstacles in the way of secure overland passage; and when the Turks were established in Europe and Africa by the conquest of Constantinople and Egypt, India became almost a closed land to the merchants of western Europe. Thus arose the necessity for a new channel of communication, less liable to interruption. Prince John of Portugal was foremost among the rulers who en couraged the then growing spirit of maritime exploration. A new way to the Indies was the dream of the day, under which Columbus discovered America, while Vasco da Gama first rounded the cape of Good Hope in 1497 and reached the Malabar coast in 1498. While the Spaniards

colonized the new world, the Portuguese established themselves in India, and for nearly a century, with the help of the papal bulls in their favor, monopolized the trade, supplying all Europe with spices, silks, and Indian produce, and raising their country to the pinnacle of its wealth and power. When in 1580 Philip II. united Portugal to Spain, and presently began his war upon England, he closed the ports of his empire against British vessels. This was the first blow at the supremacy of Portuguese commerce in the East. The British were forced to get their supplies of Indian produce from the Dutch, who immediately raised the price of pepper by 200 per cent. The revolt of the Netherlands, and consequent exclusion of Dutch vessels also from Lisbon, till then the great European depot for Indian wares, at once compelled the Dutch to seek a direct passage to India. The English were not slow to follow their example, and thus during the last 10 years of the 16th century was laid the foundation in Holland and England for the great commercial corporations known to history as East India companies. After the union of Spain and Portugal, the Portuguese East India commerce, founded in 1498 and conducted on government account, was managed with laxity; all kinds of corruption grew up among officers and servants, and it was presently found that the trade was a losing business for the government. Hereupon the exclusive privilege of commerce with India was in 1587 granted to a company of Portuguese merchants, in consideration of the annual payment of a stated sum. Attempting to enforce its rights in India, the agents of this company found themselves in collision with the Portuguese government there, which was engaged in smuggling; they found the Portuguese hated by the natives, and their designs thwarted wherever possible by the Arabs. On the breaking out of the war between England, Holland, and Spain, which struck a disastrous blow at the India trade, the Portuguese company became unable to pay its annual tribute; and thenceforth it gradually declined, until in 1640 the company was finally abolished. Since that time the unimportant commerce of Portugal with India has been carried on by the crown; though an unsuccessful attempt was made in 1731 to establish another company.-The Dutch, driven from the southern passage, monopolized by the Portuguese, made three unsuccessful attempts at the opening of a way by the ocean which bounds Europe on the north. A north-east passage was never discovered, and the wars turned southward the attention of the Dutch. A "Company for Remote Parts" was formed at Amsterdam, and on April 2, 1595, 8 years after the establishment of the new Portuguese company, 4 small vessels, equipped with a capital of 70,000 guilders, sailed from the Texel under the command of Cornelius Houtmann, bound around the cape of Good Hope. Houtmann had been a prisoner, whether among the Turks or the Portuguese is uncertain, and was acquainted with the Portuguese East India trade. Several other companies, start

ed in others of the United Provinces, finally joined that of Amsterdam, and in March, 1602, they received a charter from the states-general conferring on them the exclusive privilege of trade to the East Indies for 21 years, with the necessary civil and military powers. They began with a capital of 6,500,000 guilders; 6 towns were interested; 65 directors, chosen in stated numbers from each, equipped the vessels; 15 others had the general direction of affairs. They were so successful that in 20 years they divided among the stockholders the large sum of 30,000,000 guilders, more than 4 times the amount of the capital, beside owning vast amounts of property in colonies, fortifications, and vessels. The charter was extended to 1644; Batavia was founded; the commerce with Japan, which returned silver and copper for commodities, was extended; in 1641 Malacca, capital of the then neglected Portuguese East India possessions, fell into the hands of the Dutch by the treachery of the governor; and from 34 to 41 freighted vessels were sent out annually, of which from 25 to 34 returned loaded. Yet so rapidly did the English and French commerce increase during these years, that in 1644 the Dutch East India company could scarce command the 1,600,000 guilders required as a subsidy to the government, on again renewing its charter for 21 years. The peace of Westphalia, which secured the independence of the republic of the United Provinces, once more gave the company life. Between 1650 and 1670 they colonized the cape of Good Hope, at an expense of 20,000,000 guilders. In 1658 they succeeded in wresting Ceylon from the Portuguese; and the island of Formosa, which they then held, received a valuable colony of 30,000 expatriated Chinese, who brought industry and wealth with them. In 1661 they lost Formosa-Koxinga, a Chinese adventurer, expelling them from it. In 1663 they took possession of the most valuable Portuguese settlements on the Malabar coast. In 1666, after a prolonged struggle, they gained Macassar, and with it the monopoly of the spice trade. In 1665 the charter was with much opposition renewed till 1700, on condition of the payment of a large sum. At this time the civil and military expenses of the company, exclusive of those of the Macassar war, amounted to 3,500,000 guilders. Their report showed a prodigious extension of commerce and of territory. They held the principal seats of commerce in Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and in fact throughout the Indian archipelago. They commanded the trade with Pegu, Siam, Tonquin, Japan, the Banda and Molucca isles, Amboyna, &c. Batavia was then in all its glory, and the straits of Sunda on which it is situated had become, instead of those of Malacca, the channel to the further Indies. The charter was renewed in 1701, in 1741, and in 1776, the last time for 30 years, and on condition of paying down 2,000,000 guilders, with 360,000 annually. Turning their hands against every one in the East, and seeking by oppression of natives, exclusion of

Europeans, and the forced production of some spices with prohibition of the cultivation of others, to rule the markets of the world and to extend and consolidate their dominion and wealth, the company was yet so exhausted by war with England and political expenses, that in 1781 the states-general were obliged to assist it with a loan. In the first French revolution it lost nearly all its possessions. The establishment of the Batavian republic, Sept. 15, 1795, terminated its existence, and the affairs of the company passed into the hands of the government. A new company was established in 1824, called the Handel Maatschapijor trading association. This company is the agent for the sale of the government produce in Europe, the carrier of this produce, and farms some branches of the public revenue of Java and the other Dutch East India colonies. In 1851 this company sent to Europe about $20,000,000 worth of produce, while the amount sent from the same colonies by private merchants was only about $10,000,000. The Dutch are still noted throughout the East for their narrow policy, and their extreme severity toward the natives whom they have reduced to their yoke.— A French East India company, founded in 1740, was broken up in 1770. A Danish East India company was founded in 1618, dissolved in 1634, reconstituted in 1670, and again dissolved in 1729. A new company, formed in 1732 under the name of the Danish Asiatic company, was prosperous during the 18th century, but has since declined, especially since 1845, when Denmark ceded Tranquebar and Serampore to Great Britain. A Swedish India company, established in Gottenburg toward the middle of the 18th century, and renewed in 1806, is still in existence; its operations, however, are inconsiderable. -The English endeavored to open commercial intercourse with India as early as 1553, during the reign of Edward VI.; but their expeditions sent out overland failed of reaching their destination, from want of geographical knowledge. The next attempts were made by sea, the belief being that a north-west passage about the upper part of the newly discovered American continent was practicable, and that this would give to England a channel to the Indies, over which the pope (who, in his capacity of chief of Christendom, had granted to the Portuguese the exclusive right to pass round the cape of Good Hope, a right which was long respected) would have no control, and which would enable them to compete successfully with the Portuguese. John Cabot, looking for India in 1497, had discovered Newfoundland. In 1553 his son Sebastian took charge of 3 vessels, to discover a northeast passage to India. This was sent out by a company chartered by Edward VI. with a capital of £6,000. In 1581 the English Turkish company endeavored, but without success, to pass overland to India. Meantime the desire for Indian wealth, the arbitrary closing of the Portuguese markets against British and Dutch, and the impossibility of going to India by the north, all conspired to make the British mer

chants lose respect for the pope's bull and its prescribed boundaries, and to set out for India by the forbidden route. On Sept. 22, 1599, a company of London merchants was formed, representing a capital of £30,133, which received a charter from Queen Elizabeth, Dec. 31, 1600, under the title of the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies." The charter was for 15 years, and granted the exclusive right of trading to all countries from the cape of Good Hope eastward to the straits of Magellan, excepting those which were possessed by friendly European powers. The first Englishman who sailed to India by way of the cape of Good Hope was a Capt. Stephens, in 1582. Sir Francis Drake and Thomas Cavendish followed by way of Cape Horn. The latter sailed from England in July, 1586, in a small squadron fitted at his own expense, explored all the Indian ocean as far as the Philippines, and returned with a valuable stock of information in Sept. 1588. Two large Portuguese carracks laden with all the riches of the Indies fell into the hands of the English about 1593, and, beside rousing the cupidity and enterprise of their captors, were found to possess documents and charts of the greatest importance to the merchants shortly to adventure a trading expedition into unknown parts. These circumstances facilitated the formation of the company, of which Thomas Smythe, Esq., was the first governor, assisted by 24 directors named in the charter. The charter empowered them to elect a governor and directors and other office-bearers; to make by-laws for their government; to inflict punishments, corporal or pecuniary, on those in their employ, provided such punishments be within the laws of Great Britain; to export all goods duty free for 4 years, and to export foreign coins as bullion to the amount of £30,000 a year, £6,000 of the same being previously recoined at the mint; with the proviso, however, that they must import within 6 months from the conclusion of every voyage after the first an amount of specie equal to that before exported. It was also provided that should the company not be found to the public advantage, its charter might be cancelled after 2 years' notice given. There does not seem, after all, to have been very great zeal in fitting out vessels. Many of the stockholders did not pay up, and until 1613 but a small part of them united at all in the speculation, and these each on his own account, only using the ships of the company, and conforming to certain other regulations. The first expedition to India sailed under command of Capt. Lancaster, Feb. 15, 1601, from Torbay. It consisted of 5 ships, varying in size from 130 to 600 tons, having a cargo of bullion, iron, tin, broadcloths, cutlery, glass, &c. The entire venture, ships and all, was valued at £69,091. It arrived at Acheen, Sumatra, June 5, 1602. Lancaster made treaties with the kings of Acheen and Bantam, and returned to the Downs, Sept. 11, 1603, with a cargo of pepper and other produce, and a

prize-a richly laden Portuguese carrack of 980 tons burden, taken with the aid of a Dutch vessel. For several years the expeditions were not increased in size or value, but were generally fortunate in their results. The profits for the first 8 years were stated at 171 per cent.; but when it is remembered that a voyage lasted from 2 to 4 years, that long credits were given for goods sold, and that consequently it was often 6 to 8 years from the beginning of a voyage ere its accounts were settled, the profits were not so enormous as they look; and taking into consideration the real and the fancied risks, it is not surprising that the business of the company did not more rapidly enlarge. The profits of the trade with the islands were never very satisfactory, however. In 1607 Capt. Hawkins was sent out to endeavor to establish commercial intercourse with the dominions of the Great Mogul. His mission proved of no avail, the Portuguese intriguing successfully against him. In 1612 Capt. Beal obtained from the court at Delhi several considerable privileges, among which was that of establishing a factory at Surat, which city became at once the chief British station in India, until the organization of Bombay. Factories were depots for goods, fortified, in order to protect the lives and property of resident representatives of the company. They invariably proved the entering wedges for territorial aggrandizement on the part of the Europeans. In 1613 the capital of the company was united; the largest stockholders took the management of affairs, and these were so prosperous that in the course of 4 years the shares of the company rose to the value of 203 per cent., while its factories were extended to Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the Banda islands, Celebes, Malacca, Siam, the Coromandel and Malabar coasts, but chiefly to the dominions of the Great Mogul, whose favor the company had secured, after divers fruitless attempts. From the beginning of the company's trade to July, 1620, they had sent 79 ships to India, of which 34 had come safely home richly laden, 4 had been worn out in India, and 20 had been lost-2 by careening, 6 by sea perils, and 12 captured by the Dutch. At that time (1620) the capital of the company in ships, goods in India, &c., amounted to £400,000; they had exported from England to India the value of £840,376; had imported what cost £356,288 in India, which brought no less than £1,914,600 in England; and finally quarrels with the Dutch, their most energetic rivals, had occasioned losses to the amount of £84,088. In 1616 a new stock subscription had been opened, and £1,629,040 was raised. But in 1627 complaints were made of abuses and bad management in the company; during the reign of the Stuarts there was much murmuring against the monopoly, and Charles I. in 1635 gave to Sir William Courten and several private individuals the right to trade to India. În 1645 permission was given by the natives to the company to build Fort St. George at Madras. In 1655 Cromwell attempted, but vainly to make the

East India trade free. In 1657 he renewed the company's charter, which was confirmed by Charles II. in 1661, who at the same time conferred on them the further powers to make peace or war with any power not of the Christian religion; to establish fortifications, garrisons, and colonies; to export ammunition and stores to their settlements duty free; to exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction in their settlements according to English law; and to seize and send to England all Englishmen found trading on their private account. The years 1667'68 witnessed the beginning of the tea trade-a branch of commerce which in a very few years proved to be of vast importance to the company. In 1669 the island of Bombay was granted to the company by Charles II., who had received it as part of the marriage portion of the princess Catharine of Portugal; but its possession was not secured without a long struggle between the English and the Portuguese residents. In 1676 a factory was established on the banks of the Hoogly, which formed the foundation of Calcutta; and other factories were shortly started in Bengal. In 1677 the company received a renewal of its charter, with indemnity for past misuses, and permission to establish a mint at Bombay. In 1681, by a report of the governor, the company had 35 ships, of from 100 to 700 tons, trading between India and England, or coastwise in India; and the exports from England of lead, tin, cloth, stuffs, &c., amounted to from £60,000 to £70,000 a year. The trade was astonishingly small; the affairs of the company were not prosperous, and in 1688 doubts were thrown upon the validity of its charter by the numerous interlopers and free traders to India. In 1693, after a heavy struggle, it received a renewal of its charter. In 1694 a vote of the house of commons threw open the trade to all England. In 1698 a new company received a charter (conferring much the same privileges as those of the old one), for the consideration of a loan of £2,000,000 to the state. The two companies could not live independently, and in 1702 they were united, under the title of "The United Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies." They advanced a further sum to the state, making in all a loan of £3,200,000, at 3 per cent., in consideration of which their charter was extended until the expiration of a notice of 3 years, which could not be given sooner than March, 1726, nor until the money borrowed by government should be repaid. The act ratifying this was passed in 1708. By it the local affairs of the company were intrusted to the 3 councils of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, while the general direction was retained in England. Meanwhile, in 1698 the company had acquired a grant of Calcutta and two adjoining villages, with right of jurisdiction over the inhabitants, and leave to erect fortifications, which was immediately done. In 1701 an act prohibited the importation into England of manufactured Indian goods. In 1715 an embassy to the emperor Feroksere obtained from him various

highly important concessions for the company, among which were liberty for them to purchase the lordship of 37 towns contiguous to Calcutta, to sue and have given up to them all persons in Bengal indebted to them, and leave to pass goods for exportation duty free through the province. In 1782 the renewal of the charter was obtained with much difficulty. In 1744 the company bought its extension to 1780 by a loan of £1,000,000 at 3 per cent.-The political power of the British in India began in 1748. The acquisitions of the company were inaugurated in 1749 by its expulsion and ultimate protection of the rajah of Tanjore, he making some concessions of territory on each occasion of the British exercise of protection. In 1757 they deposed Surajah Dowlah, nabob of Bengal, gaining thereby several large and rich provinces. In 1761 the defeat of the French left the English free to pursue their schemes of aggrandizement in India. In 1792 Tippoo Sahib was compelled by Cornwallis to give up half his dominions, and £3,500,000 in bullion. In 1799 Seringapatam was taken, Tippoo slain, and some more territory annexed. Subsequently, by war with the Pindarees, with Burmah, Nepaul, the Afghans, &c., and by judicious protection, interference, and annexation, the company mastered the whole of Hindostan, with small exceptions. The sudden increase of territory and power in India threw every thing into confusion. Corruption reigned everywhere. The revenues fell short of expenses, and in 1772 the company, notwithstanding its immense possessions and privileges, was obliged to raise a loan of £6,000000 from the bank of England, and of £1,400,000 from government, for current expenses. In 1778 reform was called for, but only incompletely effected. In 1781 the privileges of the company were extended to 1791, with 3 years' notice; the dividend on its stock was fixed at 8 per cent.; £400,000 was to be paid as an annual subsidy to the government, and of the surplus revenue after paying the subsidy was to go to the government, to the company's use. Yet in 1780 the East India trade formed only

part of the entire foreign trade of the empire. In 1783 the company was again so involved, on account of wars, &c., as to be unable to pay the subsidy. In the same year, on the proposition of Mr. Pitt, a board of control was appointed. It consisted of such members of the British privy council as the sovereign of England chose to appoint, the 2 principal secretaries of state and the chancellor of the exchequer being 3 of the members. The president was usually a cabinet minister. The salaries of the president, paid commissioner, and secretary were paid by the company. In 1793 the charter was prolonged to 1814. From that date the charter was again prolonged 20 years, but the trade to India was substantially thrown open, though the monopoly of the trade to China was continued, and did not cease till 1834. Parliament in 1833 granted a new charter, by which: 1, the company ceased to be a trading

association; 2, it was continued in the government of India for 20 years, that is, until April, 1854, subject, however, to the authority of the board of control; 3, India was thrown open to the independent enterprise of British subjects; 4, all the property, real and personal, in possession of the company on April 22, 1834, was vested in the crown, and was to be held and managed by the company, in trust for the crown; the stockholders were assured by government an annual dividend of 10 per cent. on the stock; 5, of the treasure of the company, valued in 1834 at £21,103,000, £2,000,000 was formed into a sinking fund, with the proceeds of which, in or after 1874, to buy out the stockholders at 200 per cent. valuation; £8,423,000 was consumed in the payment of the company's debts, and the balance was appropriated to various improvements in India; 6, the stock might be bought in by parliament at the rate of £200 for £100, any time after 1874, with the further condition that if at any time after 1854 the company were deprived by parliament of the government of India, stockholders may demand of parliament to purchase their stock, after 3 years' notice given. When, in 1854, the last charter of the company expired, it was determined by act of parliament to renew it, but not for any given time. The capital stock, originally £2,000,000, had been increased at various times, till in 1793 it amounted to the sum of £6,000,000. At this it remained by law. This stock was owned in 1835 by 3,579 persons. As it was marketable, of course the number of stockholders continually changed. The ownership of stock to the amount of £1,000 (worth in 1835 £2,540) gave the privilege of one vote at the stockholders' meetings. The owner of £3,000 had two votes, of £6,000 three, of £10,000 and over, four. Women as well as men, and foreigners as well as Britons, if owning the requisite amount of stock, and present in London in person or by proxy, had the privilege of debating and voting. Stock must, however, have been held 12 months before the owner was entitled to a vote. In 1852 there were 2,583 voters, of whom 372 were women, 20 were peers of the realm, 10 members of parliament, 50 ex-directors, 86 clergymen, 19 physicians, 222 army officers, and 28 naval officers. Before 1836 the majority of the stockholders were merchants and bankers. The changes in the constitution, which extinguished the company as a trading association, caused a material lessening of the number of merchant stockholders. The stockholders met quarterly, in March, June, September, and December. Those owning £500 and upward of stock were permitted to be present. In 1835, 53 members had 4 votes, 54 had 3, 347 had 2, 1,454 had 1; 221, owning £500 each, were present without voting, and 396, owning smaller amounts, had no share whatever in the government. Special meetings could be called at any time at the instance of 9 holders of £1,000 each. Should the court of directors refuse to call a meeting after 10 days, the 9 stockholders took the matter in

their own hands, and posted the call upon the pillars of the royal exchange. Voting was viva voce; the open ballot might, however, be called for by any 9 of the voting stockholders. The attendance was generally small, and in many important cases the directors, who were always present, had matters all their own way. Thus in 1854, a Mr. Levin brought before the stockholders' meeting the case of a judge in the Soodra court of Bombay, who had been dismissed by the court of directors. The question on reinstating the judge came up; 19 stockholders and 1 director were in favor of reinstatement, but 9 stockholders and 15 directors were against it, and the appeal fell to the ground. Thus the court of directors actually decided upon an appeal from themselves. A similar case occurred in 1856, when the same Mr. Levin opposed, in general meeting, the directors' donation of £5,000 to the marquis of Dalhousie. The court of directors was originally composed of 24 stockholders, qualified by the ownership of at least £2,000 of stock. Should a director sell out his stock, he ceased to hold office. Six were elected each year to serve for 4 years. After 12 months out of office members were eligible to reelection. Directors must be British subjects. The act of 1853 changed the number and component parts of the court. It has since consisted of 18 members, of whom, by the act, 12 are elected by the stockholders, and 6 are chosen by the crown from men who have served a certain time in India. A third of each part go out of office each year, but may be immediately reappointed. In 1834 the court consisted of 10 former civil officers of the company, 4 army and 4 navy officers, 3 India merchants, and 9 bankers. Since then the number of London bankers has decreased, while the number of company men has increased. At that time (1835) 2 of the directors had held office 30 years, 2 between 20 and 30 years, 11 between 10 and 20, and 15 under 10 years. The directors choose annually from among themselves a chairman and deputy chairman, to serve one year each. The court meets once a week, and oftener if business requires. Nine members form a quorum. Absentees are fined 198., and the fines are divided once a year among the directors, so that even the absentees receive back a portion of their fines. Voting is by secret ballot. The deputy chairman is generally chosen chairman upon the expiration of his term of office. In case of a tie vote upon any question, the treasurer of the court decides the same by drawing lots. The directors had the initiative among the stockholders upon all questions of Indian government. For purposes of expediting business the members were annually divided into 3 committees: one on finance, and interior and marine interests connected therewith; the second on politics and war; and the third on the judicial and legislative interests. The chairman and deputy chairman were members of all these committees. The committees were formed according to seniority in the court; but after