the mountainous districts have given the name of knot (nudo), or group, and also of paramo (cold, bleak desert), to these elevated plateaus, many of which, though maintaining nearly the same mean elevation, are any thing but level. Of these there are 8 principal ones, beside many of less note. They are, beginning at the north, the nudos of Huaca, Cajas, Tiopullo, Pomachaca, Assuay, Portete, Acayana, and Savanilla. The general direction of the great mountain chains is S. S. W., but from each side of these spread out spurs and ramifications, which render most of the territory of the republic a labyrinth of mountains. Twenty-two of the mountains of Ecuador rise above the limit of perpetual snow, and 25 more rise above 10,000 feet. Of these a majority are volcanoes, some constantly active, others occasionally so; some pouring out lava and scoriæ, others vomiting upon the valleys below rivers of hot and sulphurous waters, or masses of semi-liquid mud. The following table is given by Villavicencio of the names and height of those which rise above the snow line, from the very latest measurements, which, as will be seen, differ slightly from the generally received figures:

-The rivers of Ecuador are of two classes: those which discharge their waters into the Pacific, and have a short and precipitous course; and those which, rising in the Andes, descend their eastern slope, and unite with the Amazon or some of its large branches, forming a part of the great fluvial system of the Amazonian basin. Many of these are navigable for a considerable distance within the republic. The principal rivers discharging into the Pacific are the Mira, the Onzota or Ostiones, the Esmeraldas, the Daule, the Baba, the Yaron, the Salado, and the Tumbez, which forms a small part of the southern boundary. Of these, the Esmeraldas is the most considerable. This river rises in the vicinity of Cotopaxi, near the sources of the Napo and the Pastaza, and, after a long but circuitous course, discharges its waters into the Pacific. The lower third of the river is navigable. The Mira, the Daule, and the Tumbez are all rivers of considerable importance. The Amazon, or Marañon, forms a large part of the S. boundary, or adopting the Ecuadorian location of the Peruvian frontier, traverses the S. region of the republic, from which its principal affluents are the Putumayo, the Loreto, the Ambyacu, the Napo, the Pequena, the Chambira, the Pastaza, the Morona, and the Santiago or Paute. The Putumayo forms the N. E. boundary of the republic, unless we include the district of Mainas as belonging to it. It is one of the most important

affluents of the upper Amazon, and is navigable for the greater part of its length. The Napo is the largest river wholly within the territory of the republic. It rises on the eastern slope of Cotopaxi, and has a length of a little more than 800 m., and a breadth where it joins the Amazon of 3,300 feet. It is navigable for steamboats about 550 m. The Pequena, or Tigre, is about 400 m. in length, and is navigable for 230 m. The Pastaza, like the Napo and the Esmeraldas, rises on the slopes of Cotopaxi. It is about 700 m. in length, and is navigable for 350 m. by steamboats, and 80 more for smaller vessels. The Morona is a smaller river, but is navigable for a considerable distance from its junction with the Amazon. The Santiago, or Paute, has its source in the lake of Quinuas, in the western branch of the Andes, in the province of Cuenca. Its length is about 660 m., of which about 400 is navigable for steamboats and 120 more for smaller vessels.-The climate of Ecuador varies with the elevation of the surface. Although lying directly under the equator, many portions of it enjoy a mild and delightful temperature, a perpetual spring or autumn. The sea-coast is low, hot, and sickly, but as we proceed toward the interior, we find the valleys lying between the spurs or ranges of mountains possessing a warm but not hot climate, and producing abundantly all the fruits of tropical and many of those of temperate regions; the mesetas or paramos, the elevated plains and table-lands connecting the cordilleras, are cooler in proportion to their elevation, some of them, at the height of 9,000 or 10,000 feet, like the valley of Quito, enjoying the most equable temperature perhaps on the globe, and producing fruits and flowers of all climes. The mean temperature of these plains varies from 56° to 62° F. Others, again, with an elevation of 12,000 or 14,000 feet, are cold and dreary; the surface, too barren and frigid for the growth of trees, is covered with a species of heath, and has a mean temperature of 38° to 40° F. The mesas, or high plains on the slopes of the elevated peaks, are intensely cold, and many of them covered most of the year with snow. There are but two seasons in the Ecuadorian climate: the winter, or rainy season, commences in December, and ends in May; the other, called summer, or the windy season, begins in June and terminates in November. The former is a season not of perpetual rain, but of frequent fertilizing showers. The period of the winter solstice is usually one of clear skies and delightful temperature, and is known as the "little summer." During the summer, rain seldom falls, but high winds prevail; at the period of the autumnal equinox there is usually some rain, and this is called by the inhabitants the "little winter." On the coast the seasons are nearly reversed; during the months from June to November the sky is very generally overcast, and a drizzling rain or mist very prevalent, while from December to May the skies are usually clear. In the vast forests which line the banks

of the Amazon and its tributaries, the rainy season is prolonged, owing probably to the influence of the forests in producing precipitation of the clouds from the summits of the Andes, which would otherwise pass over and water the more arid plains beyond.—In the article ANDES the general geological structure of that mighty chain is fully discussed; we need only say in regard to the special geology of Ecuador, that the Volcanoes, and indeed almost the entire mountain chains, are granite, a few of them, however, giving evidence of alluvial or diluvial deposits subsequent to their upheaval. The coasts, unlike those further south, are generally sloping, and give evidence of being the result of the more recent deposit of the detritus of the Andes. The minerals found in the Andes, either in their native state or in some of their combinations as ores, are gold, silver, iron, mercury, lead, tin, zinc, copper, antimony, manganese, sulphur, and salt. All of these are in sufficient quantities to be profitably mined. The precious metals are mostly found in the departments of Quito and Assuay, though some gold is washed from the sands of the rivers in Guayaquil. The province of Oriente is said to be particularly rich in gold and silver, but it is mostly inhabited by Indians, who habitually conceal from Europeans or other foreigners any mines or placers of which they may be cognizant. The mines of Ecuador, from a variety of causes, have not been profitably worked of late years; but under a more permanent and settled government, there is reason to hope that their great wealth may be developed. The republic does not seem to be rich in precious stones. Rubies are found, and very beautiful rock crystals. At the time of its discovery, emeralds were very abundant among the inhabitants, and were said to be obtained in the river Esmeraldas, which was thus named in consequence; but recent research renders it somewhat doubtful whether they were ever found there in very great numbers. The other principal mineral products of the republic are marble of very superior quality, alabaster, choice flints, and asphaltum. The carnivora of Ecuador are the jaguar, the ounce, the panther, the puma, the tiger cat, and the wolf. The other wild quadrupeds are the tapir, several species of wild boar, the deer, hare, rabbit, squirrel (several species), armadillo, guanaco, vicuña, the ant-eater, one or two species of antelope, and monkeys in infinite variety, from the great Brazilian monkey down to the little chichico which will hide itself in your hand. The horse and ox in this, as in other South American states, roam the plains in a wild state. The cattle of the country are generally black. The domestic animals are the horse, cow, llama, ass, mule, dog, cat, &c. On the affluents of the Amazon appear the sea cow, porpoise, and dolphin. The reptiles are the large white lizard, the cayman or alligator, a great variety of small lizards, the great boa constrictor, the rattlesnake, coral snake, horse snake, striped, tiger-spotted, and other snakes, &c.; tortoises large and small.

and, on the Galapagos islands, the great marine turtle, often weighing several hundred pounds. Ecuador is the paradise of birds. Many of them are remarkable for the brilliancy of their plamage; among these are the cock of the rocks, the peacock tribe, the wild turkey, and above all a great variety of humming birds, whose plumage has all the brilliancy and hues of a collection of precious gems. Others again make the woods vocal with their songs; among these are many species peculiar to the Andes, such as the lord of the woods, the cacique, the corregidor, and a great variety of thrushes, song sparrows, &c. Others, like the condor, the pelican, gull, kingfisher, heron, &c., are birds of prey. The parrot, paroquet, and macaw tribes are very abundant, and the forests are peopled with doves, pheasants, pigeons, grouse, &c.; and the rivers and marshes at certain seasons of the year furnish abundant food to the wild geese, ducks, teal, widgeons, snipes, and other wading and swimming birds. The eastern and western rivers have in their season an abundance of shad, bream, skate, barbel, blindfish, crawfish, eels, lampreys, &c. On the coast, lobsters, crabs, shrimps, oysters, clams, and mussels are found in great quantities. Insects are extremely numerous, and some of them very annoying; the mosquito, ant, spider, scorpion, and centipede are the pests of the lowlands. The coleoptera are remarkable for their size and the metallic splendor of their wing cases. The Hercules beetle is the most magnificent of his tribe, and the giant cantharides glitters in jewelled splen dor; the firefly is not solely indebted to his phosphorescent powers for his beauty; and many other of the insect tribes shine in green and gold. The butterflies, like those of Brazil, exhibit on their wings almost every possible variety of form and color. Among the other insects, the cochinilla, which produces the cochineal of commerce, abounds in the valleys. On the coast are found the shellfish which produces the Tyrian purple, coral of great beauty, sponge, the pearl oyster, and snails of remarkable size.The country is capable of producing the fruits, flowers, and shrubs of every region, from the torrid to the frozen zone. The lowlands along the coast yield in profusion tropical fruits and vegetation; as we rise higher, we find the products of more temperate climes; at the height of 9,000 or 10,000 feet we enter a grain district, which continues for the more hardy grains up to the height of nearly 13,000 feet. Above this the flora and grasses are decidedly Alpine in their character; and when we reach the lofty plains, where only occasional patches are free from the eternal snows, there is nothing but a few mosses and heaths to show that vegetable life is not wholly extinct. Medical science finds in these mountain slopes many of its choicest remedies. Here grow in abundance the cinchona tree, which yields the Peruvian bark and the quinine of commerce, sarsaparilla, ipecacuanha, balsam of tolu, vanilla, canella, copaiba, gentian, valerian, the purging cassia (cassia fistula), the croton tig

lium, which produces the croton oil of commerce, solanum dulcamara, ratania, whose root is the rhatany of the druggists, matico, the palo santo, from which exudes the guaiacum of the shops, the samus cassia, the liquidambar, which furnishes the storax or liquid amber of the shops, the bitter cucumber, the poppy, the guaco, a remedy used with success by the Indians for the bite of the rattlesnake, &c. These are nearly all established articles in the European and American materia medica, recognized as constituents of their pharmacopoeias; but there are very many others, highly esteemed in the domestic and medical practice of the republic, which are not known abroad. Among the nutritive plants are the cacao, which produces the chocolate, cocoa, and broma of commerce; coffee, the plantain or banana, yucca, maize, potatoes, rice, sugar cane, the sugar pear, sweet potatoes, barley, wheat, chick peas, beans, vetches, oats, rye, and other cereals; cabbages, cauliflowers, radishes, beets, artichokes, capers, asparagus, &c. Among the fruits, the most common are the pineapple, the peach, chirimoya, granadilla, orange, mango, medlar, mazuey, sapota, locma, paso, custard apple, guava, cucumber, papaw, watermelon, strawberry myrtle, mulberry, plum, pumpkin, anacardium or gum tree, mountain apple, and a host of others whose fame is known only in their native region. Ecuador also abounds in fibrous plants; some 12 or 15 are well known, which are adapted to the manufacture of hats, cordage, cloth, paper, &c. There are also some 20 or more woods and plants which furnish dyestuffs. But it is in forest trees, suitable for ship-building, for cabinet work, and for ornament, that Ecuador, like Brazil, surpasses most other countries of the world. Of the trees suitable for ship timber, and superior in this respect to any except the live oak of Florida and the teak of India, there are nearly 20 species; of those which are adapted for the finest and most ornamental cabinet work, nearly as many more; while of trees which are admired on account of their beauty of form or elegance of foliage, there are not less than 40 species. The gums and gum resins which enter so largely into commerce also abound here; several species of the trees which yield the caoutchouc of commerce are natives of Ecuador, as are also the trees producing the shellac and copal gums, eucalyptus, dragon's blood, gamboge, gum lac, and many others. With a much larger proportion of arable land than most countries possess, a soil of great fertility, and a climate which admits the cultivation of almost every thing which can be grown anywhere, agriculture is at a very low ebb in Ecuador. This is attributable, probably, to several causes: the unsettled state of the country, the difficulty of transportation, the want of education and intelligence on the part of the farmer, and the love of ease, induced by the mild and equable climate, and by the certainty that very slight exertion will provide the means of sustaining life comfortably. The implements of agriculture

are rude and imperfect, and the idea of rotation of crops, of fertilization by manures, or of any thing like intelligent farming, hardly ever finds its way into the mind of the Ecuadorian farmer. The cereals are not raised in sufficient quantity to admit of their export. Cacao is largely exported, and much is also consumed at home. Tobacco is an important crop, and many of the agriculturists employ a part of the term of their labors in collecting the roots, gums, leaves, &c., of the medicinal and useful plants of the forest for exportation.-Manufactures are confined mainly to the simplest and most inartistic processes. The braiding of the sombreros or Guayaquil hats, from the toquilla, mocora, and other straws and grasses of the country, is perhaps the most important of the manufactures. The making of hammocks from the fibres of the agave and other filament. ous plants, of sugar from the cane, of coarse clothes of cotton and vicuña wool, and of the ruder sort of ornaments of gold and silver, and the preparation of some of the fruits for a foreign market, are almost the only other branches of manufacture.-The commerce of Ecuador is of two kinds, viz.: that with New Granada and Peru, which is carried on by land, and mostly by arrieros or carriers, who transport the articles on their own shoulders and on the backs of mules; and the foreign commerce, which is transacted mostly by the ships of foreign nations, as the republic has very little shipping. The exports consist principally of silver and silver ore, cacao, sombreros, generally known as Panama or Guayaquil hats, lumber, tobacco, cascarilla, sarsaparilla, agave fibre, tamarinds, caoutchouc, canes, coffee, hammocks, &c. In 1856 the foreign exports by the ports of Guayaquil and Manta were $2,333,141 50, of which $67,562 12 was silver and silver ores. The exports to New Granada, across the frontier, were estimated at $300,000, and to Peru $100,000, making the entire exports $2,733,141 50. The same year the imports were, through the port of Guayaquil, $2,374,439 38; through Manta, $112,267 39; from New Granada (estimated) $40,000, and from Peru (estimated) $100,000; making a total importation of $2,626,706 77. It is doubtful, however, whether much reliance can be placed on the statistics of the border commerce. The trade of Ecuador with the United States has always been small. In 1856 she exported to the United States goods to the amount of $84,804, and imported from this country only $2,066. In 1857 her exports were $15,803, and imports $2,630.-The revenue of the republic in 1856 was $1,372,800, and the expenditure $1,358,498. The debt of the state is divided into 3 classes. The foreign debt, being 21 per cent. of the debt incurred by the Colombian government, and at its dissolution divided pro rata among the states which composed it, amounts to $8,828,160, for which bonds have been issued by the Ecuadorian government; the arrears of interest are consolidated in other bonds, amounting to about $4,800,000. The

foreign relations, and of finances, war, and marine; and these, with a judge of the supreme court or the court of appeals, an ecclesiastic of high rank, and the vice-president, constitute the government council. The judiciary consists of a supreme court with 5 judges, elected by congress; 3 superior courts with 3 judges each, appointed by the president; inferior courts for civil suits in each province, and alcaldes or municipal judges in each canton. Slavery is not permitted in the republic, nor are orders of nobility or hereditary titles allowed. Confiscation of property is not permitted, nor can any penalty be inflicted on the family or friends of a culprit. The inviolability of life is guaranteed, even to political offenders; and trial by jury is acknowledged as the right of every offender. The chief towns are Quito, the capital, Guayaquil, the principal seaport (the ancient Tumbez), Cuenca, Riobamba, Tacunga, and Loja.-The early history of Ecuador is involved in some obscurity; from the Indian traditions it would appear that several centuries before the Spanish conquest it was a powerful kingdom, embracing about 50 provinces, and probably of greater extent than at present. The inhabitants were called Quitus or Quichus, and the kingdom Quito. About the 10th century a foreign nation, who had inhabited the sea-coast, ascended the river Esmeraldas, and subdued the Quitus. These people were called Cara, and their kings Carau shyri, or lords of Cara. For nearly 500 years these shyri ruled the kingdom with great ability, adding to their dominions, now by conquest, and now by matrimonial alliances with neighboring chiefs. Their kingdom at length became so powerful as to excite the cupidity of the incas of Peru, who, lords of the most powerful empire of South America, aspired to govern the whole continent. In 1475 Huayna Capac, surnamed the Great, having ascended the throne of the incas, subdued the kingdom of Quito, and, making the city of Quito his capital, governed his vast empire from that city for 38 years. At his death he divided his possessions between his two best beloved sons, Huascar and Atahuallpa. To Huascar he gave the ancient empire of the incas, and to Atahuallpa the kingdom of Quito. Ás might have been expected, this arrangement, in the course of a few years, caused dissatisfaction; whether the fault lay with Huascar or Atahuallpa is now uncertain, but their discord soon led to civil war, and in its vicissitudes Huascar was defeated and imprisoned in his own capital in 1531. Atahuallpa now ascended the imperial throne, and reigned with great splendor; but his career was short. The Spaniards had already been led to the Pacific coasts of South America by their thirst for gold, and Francisco Pizarro landed at Tumbez, now Guayaquil, in 1532, with the audacious design of conquering a great empire with a force of 250 men. Pressing forward with his little band across the lofty sierras, he at length reached the city of Caxamalca, where Atahuallpa was solacing himself after the fatigues of

a journey over his empire, and within two days, by an act of the basest treachery, had made the inca a prisoner, and slaughtered his body guard. Atahuallpa, perceiving the thirst for gold which actuated the Spaniards, offered to fill the room in which he was imprisoned to a certain height with the precious metal, if he might thus purchase his freedom. The Spaniard apparently assented to the proposition, and the gold was nearly all collected when Pizarro seized it, and, after a mock trial, put the inca to death. Huascar had previously been assassinated in prison, as is believed, by order of Atahuallpa, and at the death of the latter his vast dominions fell an easy prey to the invaders. They were erected into a viceroyalty of Spain, and the kingdom of Quito became a presidency of that viceroyalty. For 275 years, the present territory of Ecuador vegetated under Spanish misrule, making little progress either in morals or intelligence, but yielding— which was the principal concern of the mother country-a rich harvest of the precious metals. During a part of this period it was one of the richest and most productive of the colonies of the Spanish crown; but the patience of the Indians, too long tried, at last gave way, and in many of the mining districts they slew the proprietors and destroyed all traces of the mines. It was not until 1809 that the colonists, disgusted with the oppression of the home government, raised the cry of liberty at Quito, and in some 5 or 6 battles made a desperate effort to attain it, but were defeated. In 1820 the effort was repeated at Guayaquil, and this time, under the guidance of Bolivar, with success. In July, 1821, Ecuador, New Granada, and Venezuela were constituted a republic under the name of Colombia, and for 3 years subsequently maintained a series of conflicts with the Spanish forces. The battle of Ayacucho, in December, 1824, finally destroyed the Spanish power in these states. In 1828-19 Peru attacked the Colombian states with a force of 8,000 men, but was defeated by the Colombian force, which amounted to only half its number. In 1831 Ecuador followed the example of Venezuela, and separating from the Colombian confederacy, became an independent republic. From that period up to 1852 the history of the republic was little else than a series of pronunciamientos and attempted revolutions, in the instigation of which Gen. Flores, an ambitious man, at one time president, attained preeminence. Since 1852 he has ceased to foment difficulties in the republic, and the people have made considerable advance in population, industry, and intelligence. The president of Ecuador is now (April, 1859) Gen. Francisco Robles, who was elected in 1856. The French decimal system in the currency, weights, and measures, was adopted, Dec. 5, 1856, and has been in operation since Oct. 15, 1858. A treaty with Peru and Chili for mutual protection against fillibusters was concluded in the early part of 1857, but the good understanding between Peru and Ecuador has of late been interrupted. Guayaquil was blockaded by the Peruvian