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of industrial and social progress, from the time when the primitive man regarded the other man across a river or over a mountain as his natural enemy, to be killed or despoiled, has been along this line the establishment of order, harmony, certainty, organization and co-operation in the place of warfare, anarchy, uncertainty and risk. There is a constant natural movement for the higher and more effective organization of society; just as inevitable as human progress, just as certain as that men will follow the shortest line between two points just as soon as they find it. It all tends to narrow the margin between producer and consumer, and improve the conditions of millions. The adoption. of a common, world-wide standard of value was a step in the simplification of the changes. The rise of the public accountant means a new factor to promote precision and certainty in the exchanges.

It is worth emphasizing that commerce has a larger motive and broader results than personal gain. I always feel like making a protest against the scornful references to "industrialism" and "commercialism," which convey the idea that the business activities are somehow in conflict with the higher life and development of society. It is not only untrue, but the very opposite of the truth. The fact is that the higher life of society has been evolved through, and by means of these same common, every-day efforts and responsibilities. Fron the beginnings of history commerce has been the great world civilizer. The contact of men of different races and localities, usually brought about in business, has done more to overcome the suspicions, prejudices and antipathies which have had their roots in centuries of warfare, more to teach mutual respect and confidence, to establish an era of friendly intercourse and good will, and thereby to elevate and ameliorate the condition of the masses than all other influences-because the majority of men learn by observation and experience rather than by precept and word of mouth.

It is not strange that the competitive struggles of the business world should at first bear strong resemblance to the earlier and bloodier struggles of the race. The cunning and deception, the selfishness, the various tricks of all trades that are pointed out as characteristic of business life were all characteristic of human nature before commerce began. They are part of the race inheritance. They are not originated in business life; they are elim

inated by business life. The influence of business life is to eradicate and throw them off.

The intercourse and relationships that men have in business, the daily face to face and man to man contact, tend to develop higher standards of conduct. Altruistic sentiments spring naturally from the higher business life because that life gives a broad view of the common interests of men. This solidarity of human interests is to be the great development of the future. Nations are learning that they are helped and not hurt by each other's prosperity. It used to be that a man's competitor was his enemy as a matter of course, but now every trade and profession, and branch of industry has its association for friendly conference and the consideration of common interests. The true idea of a business career is not that of warfare on a competitor, but honest and useful service to the community. Business relations are becoming more and more frank, and open, and definite, and are based upon a clear understanding of mutual interests. The function of the public accountant is to promote this understanding.

Professional Accountancy and Education.

REMARKS OF JOSEPH FRENCH JOHNSON,

Dean of New York University School of Commerce, Accounts, and Finance.

I will preface my remarks with a brief review of the report of the Committee on Education appointed a year ago. The Committee endeavored to find out just what the universities and colleges of the country are now doing for the preparation of young men that are entering accountancy as a profession. As they could not visit all of the universities and colleges to see what kind of instruction was being given, they were obliged to rely on letters and catalogues for information. I will give you a brief summary of the encouraging results of the Committee's inquiry.

It was found that the subject of accountancy was recognized ten years ago in college catalogues, so far as the Committee could discover by only one university, namely, the University of Pennsylvania in its Wharton School of Finance. That school was founded in 1881, or thereabouts, as a result of a gift of one hundred thousand dollars to the university by a friend in Philadelphia, Mr. Wharton. Bookkeeping, according to the terms of the gift, was a compulsory subject of study in the school. It was not called accounting, and I believe it was not taught as accounting, as accountants I understand do not know anything about bookkeeping at all. (Laughter.) Their business is to make the other fellow sorry he ever kept books. (Laughter.)

The Wharton School of Finance within recent years has added to its course of study instruction in accounting to the extent of six hours of lectures per week through the year. Not all the lectures are given in one year of study. There are three years in which the student may pursue the study of accountancy in that school.

During the last ten years a dozen or more institutions have followed the example set by the Wharton School, so we have the following results with the following courses of study and the number of hours given to them in each institution.

The University of Pennsylvania, in which is the Wharton School, six hours per week per year, or two hours for three years.

Three or four years ago the University of Pennsylvania established an evening school of finance and accounts for the benefit of young men who could not pursue the subject of accountancy as far as they desired in the Wharton School, and also for the benefit of young men who are engaged in business during the day. This evening school, as near as I can make out from the catalogue, gives a total of eight hours of what is called accounting pure and simple, not including any subject closely related such as commercial law, or corporation finance.

New York University established a school in 1900 with the coöperation and assistance of the New York State Society of Certified Public Accountants. In other words, that School would never have probably come into existence had not the New York Society taken the work upon itself. The School is an evening school, though it has day sessions which are intended for the benefit of a few young men who could not otherwise attend. But it is primarily established and now exists for the benefit of young men in business, bookkeepers, bank clerks, and others who desire an education in business subjects. Over one-half of the students are looking forward to public accountancy. In its evening school it offers a total of sixteen hours per week covering a wide range of topics.

The University of Wisconsin in its school, established within the last ten years, offers a total of ten hours. This University makes accounting a part of its work in business administration.

The University of Illinois this year on account of inability to secure a supply of satisfactory instructors in accounting, I have been told by the Dean here, is obliged to be content with only three hours, but the University proposes to offer a good many more subjects.

Dartmouth College, up in the hills of New Hampshire, has a business school of the highest type. It is a school for graduates of colleges, called the Amos Tuck School. It not only surprises the people, but it surprises educators in its scope. A student who finishes a course in that institution is equipped with a liberal education. Possibly he may come in as a special student, but he will not get the stamp known as a degree, unless he has previously a bachelor degree. The Amos Tuck School offers a total of twelve hours per week. It also teaches commercial law, finance, and similar topics closely related to your profession.

I think the youngest of our schools, and one in which I am greatly interested, is the Cincinnati School of Commerce and Accounts, founded only a year ago as the result of the combined effort of bank employers and certified public accountants of Cincinnati and the State of Ohio. That institution has opened its school year with a larger enrollment than last year, and I believe is going to become one of the strongest institutions of its kind in the country.

The Committee was delighted to find that the Pacific Coast is doing something, in fact doing quite as much as the Atlantic States, or the middle States in this field. In the University of California there is a professor of accounting. The University gives a total of six hours' work in accounting.

The University of Chicago gives a total of six hours in its college of business administration.

The University of Michigan gives a total of three hours.
The University of Vermont gives a total of six hours.
Harvard University gives a total of three hours.

The University of Kansas gives one hour.

I think this is a good text to talk about. The topic is not business education because that is not of interest to you. It is professional education. The accountant to my mind is not a business man any more than the doctor or the lawyer. The doctor is a professional man in the field of medicine; the lawyer in the field of law; the preacher in the field of religion; and the accountant is a professional man in the field of business. It is exceedingly important not merely that you should have an education which a professional man needs, or that the young man coming after you should be equipped with an adequate education in order that the work done by you may be properly done hereafter, but it is exceedingly important from a selfish point of view, the point of view of a higher self-interest, that the education which you demand from candidates shall be enough to equip them adequately, not only in your own eyes but in the eyes of the public. The public will judge you not merely by the work you do, but also by the work of the young men who come to take your places.

So the thing to think about is, are you requiring enough, are you requiring from your young men who are to become professional public accountants, a broad enough education? Although it is part of my business to prepare them for the C. P. A. exami

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