terranean countries, chiefly from Turkey. There are also a polytechnic and two agricultural schools, a military academy, and several naval schools.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Schmidt, Beiträge zur physikalischen Geographie von Griechenland (Leipzig, 1864-70); Brockhaus, Griechenland, geographisch, geschichtlich, kulturhistorisch, von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart dargestellt (Leipzig, 1870); Finlay, History of Greece (Oxford, 1877); Reclus, Géographie universelle, vol. i. (Paris, 1877); Jebb, Modern Greece (London, 1880); Wordsworth, Greece: Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical (London, 1882); Bent, The Cyclades (London, 1885); Hanson, The Land of Greece (London, 1885); Cheston, Greece in 1887 (London, 1887); Mahaffy, Rambles and Studies in Greece (3d ed., London, 1897); Hermann, Lehrbuch Staatsaltertümer der griechischen (Freiburg, 1889); Rodd, The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece (London, 1892); Freeman, Studies of Travel in Greece and Italy (New York, 1893); Samuelson, Greece: Present Condition and Recent Progress (London, 1894); Janeway, Glimpses at Greece (London, 1897); Sergeant, Greece in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1897); Seignobos, Histoire politique de l'Europe contemporaine (Paris, 1897); Pausanias, Description of Greece, translated by Frazer (6 vols., New York, 1898); Lavisse, Histoire générale, vol. x. (Paris, 1898); Symonds, Sketches and Studies in Italy and Greece (London, 1898); de Halásfy, Conspectus Flora Græcæ (Leipzig, 1900); Philipson, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der griechischen Inselwelt," in Petermanns Mitteilungen, No. exxxiv. (Gotha, 1901); Guillaume, Grèce contemporaine (Brussels, 1901). Consult also on the ethnology: Montelius, "Die Bronzezeit im Orient und in Griechenland," in Archiv für Anthropologie, vol. xxi. (Brunswick, 1892); Virehow, Ueber griechische Schädel aus alter und neuer Zeit (Berlin, 1893); Cara, Gli Hethei Pelasgi (Roma, 1894); Stephanos, "La Grèce au point de vue naturel, ethnologique, anthropologique, démographique," in Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales (Paris, 1884); and on education in ancient Greece: Mahaffy, Old Greek Education (London, 1881); Grasberger, Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum (Würzburg, 1864-81); Girard, L'éducation athénienne (Paris, 1891).

HISTORY.

ANCIENT HISTORY. (See paragraph in this article under Ethnology.) The Hellenes, or later inhabitants of Greece, were a branch of the IndoEuropean, also called Indo-Germanic or Aryan, speech-family. They are supposed to have entered the country at a remote period from the north and northeast in successive waves of migration, and were composed of various independent tribes. It was not until after the time of Homer that they received the common name Hellenes. By Homer they are called Danaäns, Argives, and Achæans, while the Hellenes were in his time a small tribe in Thessaly. The name 'Greeks' was another tribal name, generalized by the Italians. The early history of the Greeks is one of fable, wherein the achievements of centuries are compressed into single generations, and the movements of whole peoples are described as the adventures of heroes. To this so-called Heroic Age belong the deeds associated with such names as Heracles,

Theseus, and Perseus, and the great undertakings known as the Argonautic Expedition, the Expedition of the Seven against Thebes, and the Siege of Troy. Much light is thrown upon the civilization of the early period by the remains found at Mycena, Tiryns, and other places. (See ARCHÆOLOGY.)

One

The first truly historical landmark in the history of Greece is offered by the so-called Dorian migration. The waves of migration which as early as the stone age had peopled Greece with the tribes from the north were continued from time to time after the country had been occupied. One such wave was that of the Dorians, who, at some time roughly placed between B.C. 1200 and 1000, descending from their mountainous home in the central part of Northern Greece, overran the Peloponnesus and enslaved or drove out the former inhabitants of the land. One of these displaced tribes, the Achæans, settled on the southern shore of the Corinthian Gulf, expelling the Ionians, who took refuge in Attica. The story of these migrations is compressed into a single generation, but it doubtless represents the conquests of at least two or three centuries. of the effects of the movement was the colonization by Greeks of the lands farther east-the islands of the Egean Sea and the coast of Asia Minor. The expelled peoples were obliged to seek new homes, and three important streams of colonization poured across the sea: the Eolians, so called, who settled the islands and coastland to the north; the Ionians, who settled the islands of the central Egean and the middle portion of the Asiatic coast; and the Dorians farther south, who occupied Crete and other islands and the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. Several centuries later, in the eighth and seventh centuries B.C., another great colonizing impulse spread through the Grecian lands; the cause of this impulse, however, was not external pressure, but internal expansion. This movement carried Greek civilization to Sicily, South Italy (Magna Græcia), Africa, and other regions.

The history of Greece is for the most part one of individual States, each fired with the spirit of independence and the desire for freedom, and each seeking to solve the problem of national development in its own way and according to its own impulses. The two States which became most prominent, and with which history has principally to do, are Athens and Sparta. Sparta from early times held the lead in the Peloponnesus, where Argos was long her rival. In the seventh century B.C. she subdued Messenia. Her peculiar political and social institutions are ascribed to the lawgiver Lycurgus, who, according to the common tradition, lived in the ninth century B.C. At the head of the Government were two hereditary kings; but their power was limited, and in historical times was confined to certain priestly functions, the command of the army in war and the enjoyment of a position of honorary distinction in the State. The actual power was vested in the ephori (q.v.).

The development of the Athenian political system was carried further than that of the Spartan system. The regular course of political history in the Greek States was this: The kingly form of government, which was prevalent in the Heroic Age, gave place at a later time to an oligarchy of birth; this in turn became transformed into a one-man power, or 'tyranny'; and the tyranny'

was finally replaced by a government of the people, or democracy. The history of Athens illustrates this course of development, and the names of Solon (archon, B.C. 594), Clisthenes (about 508 B.C.), and Pericles (in the last half of the fifth century B.C.) are landmarks in the develop ment of the Athenian democracy. Pisistratus and his sons (B.C. 560-510) mark the period of tyranny.' The chief officers and bodies of the Athenian democracy were the nine archons, the Areopagus, the Senate, the Ecclesia, or public assembly, and the Helexa, or law courts. By the side of Athens, Sparta, and Argos, Corinth early rose to prominence, developing into a great industrial, commercial, and colonizing centre.

The Greek settlements in Asia Minor were conquered by Croesus, King of Lydia, in the early part of his reign (B.c. 560-546), and brought within the Lydian kingdom. In B.C. 546 Cræsus was overthrown by Cyrus the Great, King of Persia, and the Greek cities in Asia, as well as the islands along the coast, with the exception of Samos, were made subject to the Persians. In B.C. 500 the Ionians revolted against the Persian rule and were assisted by twenty Athenian and five Eretrian ships. Sardis, the capital of Lydia, was taken, sacked, and burned. The ire of Darius, the Persian King, was aroused, and he vowed vengeance both on his revolted subjects and on their supporters from across the sea. In B.C. 493 the rebellion was brought to an end, and in the following year Mardonius, son-in-law of Darius, was sent to Greece to take vengeance on the Athenians and the Eretrians. Three hundred ships and 20,000 men were lost in a storm off Mount Athos, and Mardonius himself, who led an army by land, was so harassed by the tribes of Thrace that he was obliged to turn back. Two years later, in B.C. 490, a second expedition, consisting, according to ancient authorities, of 600 galleys, 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse, was sent across the Egean, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes. After taking the city of Eretria, the Persians proceeded, under the guidance of the aged Hippias, to the plain of Marathon, 22 miles northeast of Athens. In the battle which there took place, 10,000 Athenians were assisted by 1000 heavy-armed soldiers and a few light-armed troops from Platæa. A messenger had been sent for aid to Sparta, but, from a religious superstition, the Spartans were prevented from marching for five days, and the crisis was then past. The Greeks, led by Miltiades, were overwhelmingly victorious; 6400 Persians were lost, while only 192 Athenians were killed. In the following year Athens found herself at war with Egina. This war taught her the necessity of having a navy, and she was in duced by Themistocles to construct a fleet of 200 vessels, and to add 20 new vessels thereto every year. In the meantime, Xerxes, the Persian King, was preparing for an invasion of Greece on a grand scale. Troops and supplies were brought together from every quarter of his Empire, until the largest army of which history has a record was assembled. A bridge of boats was thrown across the Hellespont for the convenience of the land troops, a canal was cut through the neck of the peninsula of Athos for the passage of the ships, and in the spring of B.C. 480 the force was set in motion. The first stand was made by the Greeks at Thermopyle. The pass was heroically defended by Leonidas and

his 300 Spartans, but was finally taken through the treachery of a Greek. Athens was captured and burned, having been, at the approach of the Persians, abandoned by its inhabitants. In the meantime the Persian fleet, after undergoing severe losses in storms and in battle at Artemisium, off the northern end of the island of Euboea, proceeded to Salamis in pursuit of the Greek fleet. The number of the Persian vessels at salamis was about 1200; that of the Greeks less than 400, 200 of which were Athenian. In the battle which took place in the narrow strait between the island and the mainland, and which Xerxes viewed from a golden throne erected on the slope of Mount Egaleus, the Persians were completely defeated. Xerxes fled in alarm to Asia, leaving Mardonius with 350,000 men to bring the war to a close. In the following year (B.C. 479) Mardonius was overwhelmed by 110,000 Greeks, under Pausanias, at Platea and slain, and on the same day another Persian army was defeated, with loss of its fleet, at Mycale in Asia.

Athens was now, as a result of her patriotism and sacrifices, the first State in Greece, and her position was still further strengthened by the events that followed the Persian wars. The treachery of Pausanias, the commander-in-chief of the combined Athenian and Spartan fleet which was engaged in driving the Persians from the Greek cities in the Egean and in the neighborhood of the Hellespont, caused the fleet to put itself under the leadership of the Athenian commanders, and in B.C. 478 was formed the Confederacy of Delos, on which the future empire of Athens was to be built. This Confederacy was a voluntary coalition of Greek States formed for the purpose of prosecuting the war with Persia and driving the Persian power from the Ægean Sea and the lands washed thereby. The delegates were to meet yearly on the island of Delos, and there was also to be the treasury. A fixed contribution in ships or money was assessed on each State. Gradual changes were, as time went on, wrought in the relation of the allies to one another, and the alliance of equal independent members was at length transformed into an empire of dependent States, with Athens at the head.

The period between B.C. 479 and 431, the year of the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, was the most brilliant in the history of Athens. The latter part of this period, called the age of Pericles, saw the complete democratization of the Athenian constitution. The Long Walls, connecting Athens with the port of Piræus, were now built, the city was beautified with many public buildings, the Propylæa, the Parthenon, the Theseum, and others, and sculpture, art, and literature flourished. But irritation at the oppression of Athenian control, and the old spirit of independence, which always stood in the way of Greek unity, were silently at work; the height of Athenian power is marked by the battle of (Enophyta (B.C. 456) and the conquest of Boeotia; in B.C. 447 Boeotia revolted and the Athenians were defeated at Coronea. By the treaty which was then made, the Athenians engaged not to interfere further in Boeotian affairs, and by the Thirty Years' Truce, concluded two years later (B.C. 445), they acknowledged the leadership of Sparta in all Peloponnesian matters.

The situation of affairs in Greece at the time

of which we are speaking was as follows: On one side was Athens, with her empire of subject and mostly discontented allies, comprising all the coast cities of Asia Minor as far south as Lycia, the cities along the Thracian and Chalcidian shores, and nearly all the islands of the Egean; and on the other, Sparta, with her voluntary confederacy of free and independent States, among which were numbered nearly all the States of the Peloponnesus, some in Northern Greece, and those of Italy and Sicily. Athens was a maritime power, with an efficient navy of 300 galleys; Sparta was preeminently a land power. Athens had a full treasury and a large annual revenue; Sparta was financially weak. Athens was democratic and progressive; Sparta was aristocratic and conservative. It was inevitable that the question of supremacy should at some time come to an issue between these two. The struggle was precipitated by the contentions between Corinth and her colony Corcyra, and the revolt of Poti dæa from the Delian League. The war which now broke out in B.C. 431, which is known as the Peloponnesian War, lasted until B.C. 404, and resulted in the complete abasement of Athenian pride and the establishment of Spartan supremacy. It may be divided into three periods: (1) from the beginning to the Peace of Nicias (B.C. 421); (2) from the Peace of Nicias to the Sicilian Expedition (B.C. 415); (3) from the Sicilian Expedition to the end (B.C. 404). The most important events of the first period were the surprise of Platea by the Thebans (B.C. 431), the fall of Mitylene (B.C. 427), the capture of Platea by the Spartans (B.C. 427), the siege and capture of Sphacteria by the Athenians (B.C. 425), and the defeat of the Athenians by the Spartans at Amphipolis (B.C. 422). The Peace of Nicias, which was a peace in name but not in fact, left the two contending parties in praetically the same relative position as before the war. In the second period there was more or less fighting between the different States of Greece, but no great battle. The ill-advised Sicilian Expedition (B.c. 415-413) portended the ultimate result of the long contest; it left Athens broken and exhausted. The battle at the Arginusæ (B.C. 406) was an Athenian victory, but the capture of the Athenian ships at Egospotami in B.C. 405 put an end to the war. Athens sur rendered to the Spartan commander, Lysander, her walls were demolished, her ships were given up, she was deprived of her foreign possessions, and an oligarchical government was established in the city.

restored (B.C. 403) sixteen months after Lysander had taken Athens.

The period of Spartan supremacy extended from the close of the Peloponnesian War to the battle of Leuctra, in B.C. 371. In B.C. 399 war broke out between Sparta and Persia, and in B.C. 397 Agesilaus, the King of Sparta, was sent to Asia to bring it to an end. He met with success and was about to carry the war into the interior of Asia, when he was called home to oppose a coalition of Greek States which had been formed against Sparta. The struggle that ensued is known as the Corinthian War. In B.C. 395 Lysander was defeated and slain by the Thebans at Haliartus. The allies were defeated by Agesilaus at Coronea in B.C. 394, but in the same year the Lacedæmonian fleet was defeated by Conon and Pharnabazus at Cnidus. Conon, returning to Athens, restored the fortifications of the Piræus and the Long Walls. The Corinthian War was continued in a petty way, and with varying fortune, until in B.C. 387 Sparta, through the mediation of Persia, imposed upon the Grecian States the disgraceful Peace of Antalcidas, in which the interests of the Asiatic Greeks were sacrificed. Five years later, in B.C. 382. Sparta treacherously seized the citadel of Thebes and overcame the Chalcidian city of Olynthus. Thebes was soon freed again by the Theban patriot Pelopidas, and fighting was resumed between Athens, supporting Thebes, and Sparta, which was concluded in B.C. 371 by the Peace of Callias. Thebes refused to sign the treaty, and the Spartans invaded Boeotia. The issue was determined by the battle of Leuctra (B.C. 371), in which the Thebans, led by Epaminondas, thoroughly defeated the Spartans.

The period of Theban supremacy, which now began. lasted nearly ten years, to the battle of Mantinea, in B.C. 362, and was the supremacy principally of one man, Epaminondas. Democ racy was once more predominant. The Peloponnesus was invaded, Arcadia was formed into one State, with a new city, Megalopolis, as the head, and Messenia was made independent of Sparta. Athens united with Sparta in resisting Thebes, and in the battle of Mantinea (B.C. 362), though the Thebans were victorious, Epaminondas was killed. Athens now tried to reestablish her empire over her former allies, but without success; the Social War (c.357-355 B.C.) secured the independence of nearly all the States.